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Learn CentOS
Linux Network
Services
—
Antonio Vazquez
Learn CentOS Linux
Network Services

Antonio Vazquez
Learn CentOS Linux Network Services
Antonio Vazquez
Madrid, Madrid, Spain
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-2378-9 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-2379-6
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-2379-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016960292
Copyright © 2016 by Antonio Vazquez
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are
brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for
the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser
of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions
of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must
always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the
Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.
Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather than use a trademark symbol
with every occurrence of a trademarked name, logo, or image, we use the names, logos, and images only
in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of
the trademark.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are
not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject
to proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the author nor the editors nor the Publisher can accept any legal responsibility for
any errors or omissions that may be made. The Publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein.
Managing Director: Welmoed Spahr
Acquisitions Editor: Louise Corrigan
Development Editor: James Markham
Technical Reviewer: Massimo Nardone
Editorial Board: Steve Anglin, Pramila Balen, Laura Berendson, Aaron Black, Louise Corrigan,
Jonathan Gennick, Todd Green, Celestin Suresh John, Nikhil Karkal, Robert Hutchinson,
James Markham, Matthew Moodie, Natalie Pao, Gwenan Spearing
Coordinating Editor: Nancy Chen
Copy Editor: Michael G. Laraque
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Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business Media New York, 233 Spring
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go to www.apress.com/source-code/.
Printed on acid-free paper
This book is dedicated to my family, especially to my parents, who recently had to
endure some difficult times. I love you both.
Contents at a Glance

About the Author ............................................................................ xiii

About the Technical Reviewer ......................................................... xv
Acknowledgements ....................................................................... xvii
Introduction .................................................................................... xix

■Chapter 1: Installation .................................................................... 1

■Chapter 2: Basic Administration................................................... 23
■Chapter 3: Networking ................................................................. 59
■Chapter 4: DNS ............................................................................. 73
■Chapter 5: DHCP ......................................................................... 123
■Chapter 6: Remote Access.......................................................... 151
■Chapter 7: Web Server ................................................................ 169
■Chapter 8: FTP Server ................................................................. 199
■Chapter 9: Mail Server................................................................ 229
■Chapter 10: Firewalls ................................................................. 289
■Chapter 11: OpenLDAP ................................................................ 305

Index .............................................................................................. 337

v
Contents

About the Author ............................................................................ xiii

About the Technical Reviewer ......................................................... xv
Acknowledgements ....................................................................... xvii
Introduction .................................................................................... xix

■Chapter 1: Installation .................................................................... 1

1.1. CentOS 6........................................................................................... 1
1.2. CentOS 7......................................................................................... 13
■Chapter 2: Basic Administration................................................... 23
2.1. Basic Commands............................................................................ 23
2.1.1. Directories and Their Contents (ls and cd).................................................... 23
2.1.2. Creating Users .............................................................................................. 24

2.2. Creating and Editing Files .............................................................. 25

2.2.1. vi ................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.2. nano .............................................................................................................. 27
2.2.3. gedit.............................................................................................................. 28
2.2.4. cat................................................................................................................. 29
2.2.5. grep .............................................................................................................. 30
2.2.6. more ............................................................................................................. 31
2.2.7. less ............................................................................................................... 32
2.2.8. head .............................................................................................................. 32
2.2.9. tail................................................................................................................. 32

vii
■ CONTENTS

2.3. Redirecting Output ......................................................................... 33

2.4. Installing Software ......................................................................... 33
2.4.1. Configuring yum in CentOS 6........................................................................ 35
2.4.2. Configuring yum in CentOS 7........................................................................ 36
2.4.3. yum Options.................................................................................................. 38

2.5. Graphical Environment ................................................................... 44

2.5.1. CentOS 6 ....................................................................................................... 44
2.5.2. CentOS 7 ....................................................................................................... 48

2.6. Other Useful Commands................................................................. 51

2.6.1. chmod ........................................................................................................... 51
2.6.2. tee................................................................................................................. 51
2.6.3. rm ................................................................................................................. 53
2.6.4. ps .................................................................................................................. 53

2.7. SELinux........................................................................................... 53
■Chapter 3: Networking ................................................................. 59
3.1. IPv4 ................................................................................................ 59
3.1.1. Special Addresses ........................................................................................ 60
3.1.2. Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast ................................................................ 60
3.1.3. IPv4 Configuration in CentOS ........................................................................ 61
3.2. IPv6 ................................................................................................ 67
3.3. Networking Tools ............................................................................ 69
3.3.1. netstat .......................................................................................................... 69
3.3.2. lsof ................................................................................................................ 70
3.3.3. nmap............................................................................................................. 70
3.3.4. ping............................................................................................................... 72
3.3.5. ping6............................................................................................................. 72

viii
 ■ CONTENTS

■Chapter 4: DNS ............................................................................. 73

4.1. DNS Service ................................................................................... 73
4.2. Installing a DNS Server .................................................................. 75
4.2.1. Starting the Service in CentOS 6 .................................................................. 76
4.2.2. Starting the Service in CentOS 7 .................................................................. 77
4.3. Installing a Master Server .............................................................. 79
4.4. Client Configuration ........................................................................ 90
4.5. Slave Servers and Zone Transfers .................................................. 93
4.6. DNSSEC and TSIG ......................................................................... 102
4.7. Chroot ........................................................................................... 107
4.8. Diagnostic Tools ........................................................................... 110
4.8.1. rndc ............................................................................................................ 110
4.8.2. dig............................................................................................................... 113
4.8.3. host ............................................................................................................. 114

4.9. Troubleshooting ............................................................................ 115

4.9.1. A Computer Can’t Resolve Names .............................................................. 115
4.9.2. Many Computers Can’t Resolve Names...................................................... 116
4.9.3. Master and Slave Servers Don’t Have the Same Information..................... 118

4.10. Log Files ..................................................................................... 119

4.10.1. journalctl (only in CentOS 7) ..................................................................... 120

■Chapter 5: DHCP ......................................................................... 123

5.1. Installing a DHCP Server .............................................................. 124
5.1.1. DHCPv4 ....................................................................................................... 125
5.1.2. DHCPv6 ....................................................................................................... 128

5.2. Troubleshooting and Diagnostic Tools .......................................... 130

5.3. DHCP and DNS Dynamic Update .................................................. 135
5.3.1. Use of Keys ................................................................................................. 145

ix
■ CONTENTS

■Chapter 6: Remote Access.......................................................... 151

6.1. Telnet ............................................................................................ 151
6.2. ssh ................................................................................................ 155
6.2.1. X11 Forwarding .......................................................................................... 157
6.2.2. File Transfer ................................................................................................ 161
6.2.3. Authenticating with Keys ............................................................................ 162
6.3. VNC ............................................................................................... 163
■Chapter 7: Web Server ................................................................ 169
7.1. Installing the Apache Web Server................................................. 169
7.2. Name Resolution .......................................................................... 171
7.3. Configuring the Web Site .............................................................. 172
7.4. Virtual Hosts ................................................................................. 174
7.5. Restrict Access ............................................................................. 178
7.5.1. Host-Based Security ................................................................................... 178
7.5.2. User-Based Security ................................................................................... 181

7.6. PHP Support ................................................................................. 184

7.7. HTTPS ........................................................................................... 185
7.7.1. Certificate Creation with openSSL .............................................................. 187
7.7.2. Certificate Creation with certbot ................................................................ 195

■Chapter 8: FTP Server ................................................................. 199

8.1. Installing an FTP Server on CentOS.............................................. 199
8.2. Connecting from a Linux Client .................................................... 200
8.2.1. Access As an Anonymous User ................................................................... 201
8.2.2. Connecting As a Local User ........................................................................ 213
8.3. Connecting from a Windows Client .............................................. 214
8.4. Analyzing the FTP with Telnet....................................................... 216

x
 ■ CONTENTS

8.5. Secure FTP ................................................................................... 221

8.5.1. Generating the Certificate........................................................................... 221
8.5.2. Configuring vsftpd As an FTP Secure Server .............................................. 222
8.5.3. Connecting with Filezilla............................................................................. 223

■Chapter 9: Mail Server................................................................ 229

9.1. Communication Between Local Users .......................................... 229
9.2. Communication Between Remote Systems ................................. 231
9.3. Mail Service and DNS ................................................................... 234
9.4. Routing Mails ............................................................................... 239
9.5. Using a Mail Client ....................................................................... 245
9.5.1. POP3 ........................................................................................................... 247
9.5.2. IMAP ........................................................................................................... 253

9.6. SMTP Authentication .................................................................... 259

9.7. Secure Connections ..................................................................... 264
9.7.1. Securing the SMTP Connection .................................................................. 264
9.7.2. IMAPS ......................................................................................................... 268
9.7.3. POP3S ......................................................................................................... 274

9.8. Spam ............................................................................................ 275

9.9. Webmail........................................................................................ 280
■Chapter 10: Firewalls ................................................................. 289
10.1. Firewall in CentOS 6 ................................................................... 289
10.1.1. Saving and Restoring the Configuration ................................................... 294
10.1.2. Port Redirection ........................................................................................ 297
10.1.3. Redirecting Traffic to a Different Host ...................................................... 298
10.1.4. Logging Packets ....................................................................................... 299

xi
■ CONTENTS

10.2. Firewall in CentOS 7 ................................................................... 300

10.2.1. Saving and Restoring Configuration ......................................................... 303
10.2.2. Port Forwarding ........................................................................................ 304
10.2.3. Redirecting Traffic to a Different Host ...................................................... 304

■Chapter 11: OpenLDAP ................................................................ 305

11.1. Installing OpenLDAP ................................................................... 305
11.2. Customizing the Installation ....................................................... 306
11.2.1. Modifying Objects ..................................................................................... 306
11.2.2. Adding Objects.......................................................................................... 312
11.2.3. Deleting Objects ....................................................................................... 317

11.3. Securing LDAP Connections with TLS ........................................ 318

11.3.1. Creating a CA ............................................................................................ 318
11.3.2. Securing the LDAP Protocol. ..................................................................... 322
11.4. Authenticating Users with LDAP ................................................. 325
11.5. PHPLDAPAdmin .......................................................................... 329
11.6. Troubleshooting .......................................................................... 332

Index .............................................................................................. 337

xii
About the Author

Antonio Vazquez is an IT professional who has been

working with Linux for more than a decade. He studied
computer engineering at university in Spain, and he
currently holds many IT certifications from the main
vendors in the industry. At present, he works for a
public institution and is in charge of almost a thousand
Linux servers spread across the country, providing web
services, FTP services, file services, virtualization, and
more.

xiii
About the Technical
Reviewer

Massimo Nardone has more than 22 years of

experience in security, web/mobile development, and
cloud and IT architecture. His true IT passions are
security and Android.
He has been programming and teaching how to
program with Android, Perl, PHP, Java, VB, Python,
C/C++, and MySQL for more than 20 years. He holds a
master of science degree in computer science from the
University of Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager, software
engineer, research engineer, chief security architect,
information security manager, PCI/SCADA auditor,
and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect
for many years. His technical skills cover security,
Android, cloud, Java, MySQL, Drupal, Cobol, Perl, web
and mobile development, MongoDB, D3, Joomla, Couchbase, C/C++, WebGL, Python,
Pro Rails, Django CMS, Jekyll, and Scratch, among others. He currently works as Chief
Information Security Officer (CISO) for Cargotec Oyj.
He was a visiting lecturer and supervisor for exercises at the Networking Laboratory
of the Helsinki University of Technology (Aalto University). He holds four international
patents (related to PKI, SIP, SAML, and Proxy).
Massimo has reviewed more than 40 IT books for various publishing companies, and
he is the coauthor of Pro Android Games (Apress, 2015).

xv
Acknowledgments

I’d like to extend my gratitude to everybody at Apress, especially to those with whom I’ve
had the pleasure of working directly: Louise Corrigan and Nancy Chen. I would also like
to thank the technical reviewer, Massimo Nardone. They all helped me a lot.
Of course, I can’t forget my wife, who is also my biggest fan and always offers me her
support and patience.

xvii
Introduction

Many things have changed since that day in which a young Finnish student named
Linus Torvalds decided to post a message in a forum, searching for help with the
development of a new operating system. He hardly could have imagined that there
would be so many people eager to collaborate. And what had started as a hobby
became an efficient operating system (OS) used today by thousands of companies and
users around the world.
Linus decided to make this OS free for everybody to use, share, study, and modify
the code. So he licensed the code under the GNU license. This way, it was possible for
everybody to have access to the source code and modify it according to their likes and/
or needs. This resulted in many companies, universities, etc., having their own Linux
distributions.
Even though many of these distributions have remained confined to small areas
of influence, such as universities or official departments, a few have achieved general
recognition over the years. A few well-known examples include Red Hat, SUSE, Debian,
and Ubuntu.
The Red Hat Linux distribution system, developed by the Red Hat company is,
undoubtedly, one of the most important and influential. Red Hat has made many relevant
contributions to the Linux community, for example, the Red Hat Package Manager
(RPM), used by several other distributions, and Suse.
Red Hat used to publish desktop, as well as server, editions of its OS, and these
were made freely available for anyone to use. But in the year 2004, the company decided
that its OS would be provided only to clients. Obviously, this concerns only the binary
distributions, as the source code has to be made publicly available to comply with the
GNU license.
From that moment on, two new projects emerged with the aim of trying to maintain
a Red Hat clone that would be freely available to everyone. The first project was called
Fedora. It was sponsored by Red Hat itself and was conceived as some sort of beta Red
Hat platform.
Many users thought that Fedora was OK as a desktop platform, but it was by no
means a reliable enterprise solution. In order to fulfill this gap, many Linux professionals
and enthusiasts gathered around a new project called CentOS (Community Enterprise
Operating System), whose main goal was to become a freely available robust enterprise
operating system.
Today, CentOS is a reliable, efficient server operating system used by hundreds of
companies to provide critical services.

xix
■ INTRODUCTION

Audience
Some experience with computers is expected of readers of this book. Some previous
Linux experience is useful, if not absolutely necessary. The only requirement, however, is
the will to learn!

Conventions
The Code style attribute has been applied to file names, paths, commands, and URLs.

Feedback
I would really appreciate your opinions, suggestions, questions, or criticisms regarding
this book. Please feel free to e-mail me at antoniojvv@yahoo.es. Note, however, that I
cannot promise to respond to everyone.

xx
CHAPTER 1

Installation

1.1. CentOS 6
As it usually happens, there is more than one way to install CentOS on a computer. So,
depending on the way we initially boot the server and the source of the installation
packages, we have many options.

• We can boot and install the system from a DVD. This is probably
the most straightforward option, and the right choice if you only
have to install a couple of servers. We boot the server from the
DVD, and we install all the software from the DVD too.
• We can also use a CentOS Network netinstall DVD to boot the
server and then install the packages from a server in our local
network or from the Internet. This is a good choice if we have to
install a lot of servers.
• We could also use a USB device to boot the server. In this case,
we first prepare the USB device by using software packages
such as UNetbootin,1 and we also have to download the CentOS
installation files. Once the USB device is ready, we can use it to
boot the server and then choose whether to install from a local or
a network repository.

In addition, independent of the type of installation we choose, we can also automate

the installation by using kickstart. The use of kickstart is beyond the scope of this book,
but it basically consists of passing a special parameter to the installer with the location of
a script file that contains instructions for the installation.

1
SourceForge, “UNetbootin: Bootable live USB creator for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Linux distributions,”
https://sourceforge.net/projects/unetbootin/, 2016.

© Antonio Vazquez 2016 1

A. Vazquez, Learn CentOS Linux Network Services, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-2379-6_1
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Nevertheless, in order to keep things simple, in this book, we will avail ourselves only
of the typical DVD installation. The first thing one must do is to get the installation DVDs.
These can be downloaded from the CentOS official site.2 At the time of writing this book,
the ISO files could be downloaded from the links available from http://wiki.centos.
org/Download.3 We can choose the exact version we want to install, the architecture (32 or
64 bits), and the type of installation (minimal, network, etc.). We will download and burn
the ISO files CentOS-6.2-i386-bin-DVD1.iso and CentOS-6.2-i386-bin-DVD2.iso.
Once we have the DVDs, installation is fairly simple. We make sure that the computer is
configured to boot from a DVD, and we restart it with the first installation DVD inside.
After a few seconds, we’ll see the screen in shown in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1. Booting from the installation DVD

We’ll select the first option, “Install or upgrade an existing system.” This will launch
the actual installation program. Now we are offered the possibility of checking the
installation media (Figure 1-2). Once we are sure that there is no problem with the DVDs,
we click Skip.

2
CentOS, “The CentOS Project,” http://centos.org/, 2016.
3
CentOS, http://wiki.centos.org/Download, 2016.

2
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-2. Checking the installation media

Now the system will init the graphical installer (Figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3. The graphical installer

3
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

From the next screens, we’ll have to choose the language and the keyboard layout
(Figures 1-4 and 1-5).

Figure 1-4. Language

4
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-5. Keyboard

Now we have to choose whether to install CentOS in a standard disk or in a special

device, such as a SAN, LUN, iSCSI drive, etc. As we’ll be installing standard disks most of
the time, we will choose the first option (Figure 1-6).

5
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-6. Choosing where to install the OS

After clicking the Next button, a warning appears (Figure 1-7), telling us that all data
in the disk will be lost. As this is either a blank disk or a disk whose data are no longer
needed, we click Yes.

Figure 1-7. Storage device warning

6
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

The program now requests us to enter the name and the domain of the computer
we are about to install (Figure 1-8). We can write this information now or do it once the
installation is complete. We click Next.

Figure 1-8. Computer name and domain

From the upcoming screens, we’ll have to choose the time zone as well as the root
password (Figures 1-9 and 1-10).

7
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-9. Time zone

Figure 1-10. Root password

8
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Now we are offered several options before starting the actual installation (Figure 1-11).
We can choose to use the whole disk, no matter what Linux or non-Linux partitions might
exist on the disk, use only free disk space, customize the disk partitioning, etc. As the
default partitioning scheme is acceptable to start, we choose the first option. Although,
if we already had clearly in mind the role the server was to play in the network, we would
probably have to customize the partitioning layout to create separate partitions or
volumes for the different directories: /home, /var, etc.

Figure 1-11. Partitioning layout

We receive another warning (Figure 1-12), reminding us that the changes are going
to be written on disk, and we are requested to specify what software package we want
to install. There are several predefined sets of software, database server, web server, etc.
We’ll choose the Minimal option (Figure 1-13) and install later the different software
packages, as we need them.

9
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-12. Writing to disk

Figure 1-13. Software selection

And, finally, the actual installation process begins (Figure 1-14).

10
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-14. Installing the software packages

After a few minutes, the installation will be over (Figure 1-15), and we’ll have to
reboot the system.

11
CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

Figure 1-15. Congratulations!

Once the boot process is complete, we have a working CentOS server (Figure 1-16).

Figure 1-16. Our brand new server

12
 CHAPTER 1 ■ INSTALLATION

1.2. CentOS 7
As you saw in section “CentOS 6,” there are many types of installations to choose from.
As we did previously when installing CentOS 6, we’ll also install CentOS 7 from the
installation DVD. At the time of writing of this book, this could be downloaded from the
official site.4 After downloading the ISO file, we can burn it onto a DVD. After that, we
are ready to boot a server with the installation DVD inserted, as long as the computer
is configured to boot from a DVD. After a few seconds, we’ll see the screen shown in
Figure 1-17.

Figure 1-17. Booting from the CentOS 7 DVD

4
CentOs, http://www.centos.org/download/, 2016.

13
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A man who had been tied in a great city all his life made his first visit
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saw that he wrote a letter describing his emotions. Some of it is
worth quoting because it shows a picture of the modern farm as it
was cast upon the eye of a man who had never seen it before.
“I was whisked from the railway station in a big touring car, through
beautiful country. Then we turned up a flower and shrub lined
concrete driveway, and stopped by a home, capacious and modern.
Inside I found electric lights, electric iron and bathroom with running
water.

The Woman on the Farm at Last Enjoying the Benefit of Labor-

Saving Machines
This small mounted kerosene engine runs the washing
machine, pump, cream separator and churn. It is easily
 drawn about from place to place by hand where its energy is
needed to lighten the housework.

“I found that the good man of the house had his own electric light
and water plant, run by kerosene engines, that his cows were milked
automatically, that he pulled his plows, harrows, drills, manure
spreader and binder with a kerosene tractor, that his hired men went
about the farm doing everything as they rode on some machine, that
he went to church and town in an automobile, and that he delivered
the products of his farm to market with a motor truck. Everything
was managed like a factory. Things went forward with order and with
assurance. Everyone was busy and happy.”
This is an optimistic picture of one of our best farms, but compare it
with the best that could be found only a few hundred years ago. The
best farmer of those days held all the land for miles around and lived
in a castle in the middle of it. The castle was dark and cold and was
made of rough stones fitted together. The poor farmers were serfs
and came two or three days out of a week to their master’s house to
work. Those were the great days of their lives, for then they ate of
the master’s food.
Food—that was the problem of those long tired years which dragged
through the ages, when nearly everyone was a farmer, and a farmer
with crude tools held in his hands. Time was when practically the
whole world went to bed hungry and rose again in the morning
craving food, just as half the millions of India do today because they
do with their hands what a machine should do.
 The Motor Truck May be Used by the Farmer Even
in Hilly and Mountainous Places

This photograph was taken near the summit of

Pike’s Peak.

People in the hungry, unfed ages grew so used to privation that even
the philosophers accepted sorrow and woe as a matter of course and
dilated upon their virtues for chastening the human soul. “It is better
to go to the house of mourning than the house of mirth,” said one of
the prophets, and such words brought comfort to the hungry,
miserable millions who had to mourn and go hungry whether it was
to their advantage or not.

The Reaping Hook was the First Implement Used for Harvesting
Grain of which we have Record
This pictures the reaping hook as still used in India.

Today the years glide by like pleasant pictures. We are fed, busy and
happy. We almost let the dead bury their dead today while the living
drive forward their tasks, achieving as much in a year as the old ages
did in twenty. We have learned to feed ourselves and the food fills
our bodies and brains with energy which must find expression in
useful accomplishment. “Blessed is he who has found his work to do,”
we say nowadays, “but thrice blessed is he who has found a machine
to do it for him.”
Thread your way back through history to the time when the slender
lives of men expanded into full and useful employment, and you will
find that, so far as raising the world’s food is concerned, it all began
with the invention of the reaper in only the last century. It is
interesting to know something of the precarious entry of this
machine and something of the dark background from which it
emerged.

The Scythe is a Development of the Reaping Hook

The blade was made larger and the handle longer so two
hands could be used.

The Reaping Hook or Sickle.

From the first pages of history we find that the reaping hook or sickle
is the earliest tool for harvesting grain of which we have record.
Pliny, in describing the practice of reaping wheat says, “One method
is by means of reaping hooks, by which the straws are cut off in the
middle with sickles and the heads detached by a pair of shears.”
Primitive sickles or reaping hooks made of flint or bronze are found
among the remains left by the older nations. Pictures made in 1400
or 1500 B. C. upon the tombs at Thebes in Egypt, which are still
legible, show slaves reaping with sickles. This crude tool, brought
into use by ancient Egypt, remained almost stationary as to form and
method of use until the middle of the last century.
The scythe, which is a development from the sickle, enables the
operator to use both hands instead of one. The scythe is still a
familiar tool on our farms, but it serves other purposes than that of
being the sole means of harvesting grain.

The Cradle was Developed in America between 1776 and 1800

and is an Outgrowth of the Scythe. It is Still Used in Some
Places

The Cradle.
Gradually the blade of the scythe was made lighter, the handle was
lengthened, and fingers added to collect the grain and carry it to the
end of the stroke. With the cradle the cut swath could be laid down
neatly for drying preparatory to being bound into bundles. This tool is
distinctly an American development. The colonists, when they settled
in this country, probably brought with them all the European types of
sickles and scythes, and out of them evolved the cradle.
With the cradle in heavy grain an experienced man could cut about
two acres a day, and another man could rake and bind it into
sheaves, so that two men with the cradle could do the work of six or
seven men with sickles.
The American cradle stands at the head of all hand tools devised for
the harvesting of grain. When it was once perfected, it soon spread
to all countries with very little change in form. Although it has been
displaced almost entirely by the modern reaper, yet there are places
in this country and abroad where conditions are such that reaping
machines are impractical and where the cradle still has work to do.
[560]

Harvesting in the West

Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums.
 Steam Harvester and Thresher
The upper view shows side-hill harvesters drawn by teams of
twenty-eight horses each. The machines cut the grain, and
tie it up in bundles, which are dropped alongside. The
machine in the lower view is self-propelling, cuts and
threshes the grain, throwing out the straw, and places the
grain in sacks ready for loading on the wagon.
Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums.

Early Attempts to Harvest with Machines.

The beginning of practical efforts in the direction of harvesting by
wholly mechanical means may be said to date from the beginning of
the last century, about the year 1800, although very little progress
was made from that time up to the year 1831.
It is true that the Gauls made use of an instrument nearly two
thousand years before, but this contrivance fell into disuse with the
decline of the Gallic fields. Pliny describes this machine which was
used early in the first century and which might be termed a stripping
header. Palladius, four centuries later, describes the same sort of
machine. This device of the Gauls had lance-shaped knives, or teeth
with sharpened sides, projecting from a bar, like guard teeth, but set
close together to form a sort of comb. As it was pushed forward, the
stalks next the heads came between these sharp teeth and were cut
or stripped off into a box attached to and behind the cutter bar and
carried by two wheels. When the box was filled with heads, the
machine was driven in and emptied. This is the way in which it is
supposed that it was worked, and the illustration is the generally
accepted representation of it as roughly reconstructed from the old
Latin description of Pliny.

The Mowing Machine has Replaced the Scythe for Cutting Hay,
and the Kerosene Tractor has Replaced Expensive Horse Power
for Pulling the Mowers

The tractor has 10 H. P. on the drawbar and is pulling three

mowers, laying down a swath of hay 21 feet wide.

Near the close of the past century, the subject of grain-reaping

machines again began to claim the attention of inventors. In July,
1799, the first English patent was granted to Joseph Boyce. In 1806,
Gladstone of England built and patented a machine which not only
attempted to cut the grain, but also to deliver it in gavels to be
bound. In 1807, Plucknett and Salmon both patented machines. In
1811, Smith and Kerr took out patents. In 1822, Henry Ogle, a
schoolmaster of Rennington, assisted by Thomas and Joseph Brown,
invented the so-called Ogle reaper. The next, and last, reaper of this
period was invented by Patrick Bell of Carmyllie, Scotland, in 1826.
Nearly all of these early reapers relied upon scythes or cutters with a
rotary motion or vibrating shears. This method of cutting was
essentially wrong, and none of the machines ever appeared to have
gained or long retained the favor of the farmers. That these early
attempts were all unsuccessful is evidenced by the fact that at the
great World’s Fair in London in 1851, the United Kingdom could not
present a single reaping machine. English journals and writers of that
period, without a single exception, spoke of the American reapers
which were exhibited as “completely successful.” For the real
progress towards solving the problem of harvesting grain with
machines we must turn to America.

The McCormick Reaper of 1845

American invention in this line, so far as there is any record, began

with the patent issued to Richard French and T. J. Hawkins of New
Jersey, May 17, 1803. No reliable description of this machine seems
to be extant. Five patents of no importance were issued between
that time and 1822, when Bailey took out a patent. Cope and Cooper
of Pennsylvania obtained a patent in 1826, and Manning obtained
one in 1831.
 A Corn Binder Cuts the Heaviest Corn with Ease

Up to 1831, no successful and practical reaper had been developed.

With all the patents taken out in England, and with those taken out
in America from 1803 down to 1831, we might say that nothing had
been accomplished toward perfecting a reaping machine which
actually worked successfully.

A View of the First McCormick Reaper of 1831 as Used in the

Field

The First Successful Reaper.

 The McCormick Reaper of 1845 in the Field, with a Seat Added
for the Raker
Formerly the raker walked by the side of the machine.

In 1831 came McCormick’s reaper, the first practical machine of its

kind ever taken into the field. It was crude at first, but improved from
year to year. Although McCormick’s reaper was not patented until
1834, one year after the patent granted to Obed Hussey for his
reaper, young McCormick gave a public exhibition in Virginia three
years before, in 1831. It was in the fall of that year when Cyrus
McCormick hitched four horses to his machine, which had been built
in the old blacksmith shop at Steel’s Tavern, and drove into a field of
late oats on the farm of John Steele, adjoining his father’s. The
reproduction of an old lithograph depicting this scene indicates the
interest of the neighbors in this event. Although the United States
had been established more than fifty years past, this was the first
grain that had ever been cut by machinery. McCormick’s machine
continued to operate to the surprise of everyone and in less than half
a day had reaped six acres of oats—as much as six men would have
done by the old-fashioned method.
This was not the first attempt of a McCormick to solve the problem of
harvesting wheat by machinery, for Robert McCormick, the father of
Cyrus, had, himself, worked on a machine of this kind as far back as
1816. His father tried it again in 1831 and abandoned it, and in that
same year the son Cyrus took up the work and started the world
toward cheaper bread.

McCormick Reaper of 1858

The first practical reaper taken into the field in 1831 embodied the
essential parts of the reaper with which we are familiar. It had a
platform for receiving the grain, a knife for cutting it, supported by
stationary fingers over the edge, and a reel to gather it. The driver of
the machine rode one of the horses, while the man who raked off the
grain walked by the side of the machine.

Development of the Reaper.

The ten years following this first instance of a successful reaper were
strenuous times indeed for Cyrus McCormick, for it was not until
1840 or 1841 that he was able to make his first sale. Twenty more
were sold in 1843 and fifty in 1844.
 The Progressive Farmer of Today does not let His
Cornstalks go to Waste in the Field, but Cuts
Them with a Corn Binder and Either puts Them
into a Silo or Shreds Them into Stover for His
Hay-loft
This picture shows the husker and shredder in
operation with kerosene for power.

During all these years from 1831 to 1844 Mr. McCormick was
diligently at work changing, testing and experimenting. In 1845 he
secured a second patent, which embodied many improvements—the
principal ones referring to the cutting mechanism.
[565]

The McCormick Reaper of 1858 in the Field

 Note that an automatic raker has been substituted for the
man who rode on the machine and raked off the cut grain.

In this year, Mr. McCormick started for the western prairie, and in
1847 built his own factory in Chicago, thus starting the world’s
greatest reaper works. This factory, known as “McCormick Works,” is
still in progress. It covers today more than 120 acres in the heart of
Chicago, and has an annual capacity of 375,000 machines of all
types.

A Marsh Harvester as Built by the McCormick Company in 1874

Note the two men riding on the platform and binding up the
grain as delivered to them by the elevator of the machine.

The third step in the development of the reaper was the addition to
the machine of a seat for carrying the raker. The machine built in
1831 required that the raker walk by the side of the machine. In
1845 Mr. McCormick added the seat, patent for which was added in
1847. This seat which carried the raker enabled him while riding to
rake the grain from the platform and deposit it in gavels on the
ground. This type of reaper, patented in 1847, is the one taken by
Cyrus H. McCormick to the first world’s fair held in London, England,
in 1851, and about which the records of that exposition state “The
McCormick reaper is the most valuable article contributed to this
exposition, and for its originality and value and perfect work in the
field it is awarded the council medal.”
This same reaper received the grand prize in Paris in 1855 and is the
reaper which created so much surprise in the world’s fair in London
that the comments made by the press demonstrated beyond a doubt
that England had not as yet built a successful reaper. In 1858 the
machine was further improved by substituting an automatic rake for
the raker on the machine.

A McCormick Header Binder which Elevates the Grain into

Wagons which Drive Alongside

Many other patents were granted from time to time until 1870, when
the foundation features of all reapers had been invented and
substantially perfected. The reaper is still used extensively, especially
in foreign countries.
The interest in this machine centers not in its development as used
today, but in the fact that it led to the invention and perfection of the
self-binder.
The prototype of all machines designed to bind the grain before
being delivered to the ground is the Marsh harvester. It is the half-
way mark, the child of the reaper and the parent of the self-binder.
The original patent for this machine was granted August 17, 1858, to
two farmer boys of De Kalb, Illinois, the Marsh brothers.
Previous to this time, attempts had been made to build harvesting
machines which would bind the grain before delivered to the ground,
but not one could be considered a success. At the time the Marsh
harvester began seeking a place in the market, about 1860, reapers
—hand-rakers, self-rakers, and droppers—held the trade substantially
to the exclusion of any other kind of harvesting machine.
[567]

A Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker

This ingenious machine is a great labor saver in the hay field. The hay can be
gathered by any number of sweep rakes and dumped near the stacker, which will
stack on any side and in any shape.

The first successful Marsh harvester, built in 1858, was operated

through the harvest of that year. It has never been changed
materially in principle or form since. The theory of the inventors was
that two men might bind the grain cut by the five-foot sickle in
ordinary motion provided it could be delivered to them in the best
possible position and condition for binding and if they could have
perfect freedom of action. They knew that the binders must have a
free swing and open chance at the grain to enable them to handle it,
so they arranged the elevated delivery, the receptacle, the tables and
the platform for the man with these things in view.
The second Marsh harvester was built in Chicago in 1859.
Improvements were made during the years 1861, 1862 and 1863.
The manufacture of the Marsh harvester began in earnest at Plano in
the fall of 1863 by Stewart and Marsh, twenty-five machines being
put out in 1864.

No More Tiresome Hay Pitching on this Farm, where Hay Loaders

Elevate the Hay to the Men on the Wagons
The small kerosene tractor has taken the place of horses and
is drawing two wagons at a time.

In 1875 McCormick began putting out harvesters of the Marsh type.

Of straight Marsh harvesters—carrying a man to bind—there had
been made up to and including 1879 over 100,000, of which about
two-thirds had been produced by the Marsh combination and the rest
by outsiders.

The Self-Binder.
The development of the automatic binder followed quickly after the
introduction of the Marsh harvester, although attempts were made to
perfect this machine as early as 1850.
[569]

A Modern Grain Binder in Heavy Oats

 The Withington Binder Built by the McCormicks in 1876
This machine binds the grain with wire.

The self-binding harvester was borne on the shoulders of the Marsh

harvester. Carpenter, Locke, Gordon, Appleby and every inventor who
succeeded in any measure in binding grain, first did so by placing his
binding attachment upon a Marsh harvester, taking the grain from a
receptacle where it fell to another receptacle where it was bound.
The first record of these attempts is a patent granted to J. E. Heath,
of Warren, Ohio, in 1850. Watson, Renwick and Watson secured
patents in 1851 and 1853, but their machines were very complicated
and never more than experiments. From that time until 1865 many
patents were granted, none of which may be considered successful.
In 1865 S. D. Locke of Janesville secured a patent which ultimately
developed into the Withington wire binder first put out by McCormick
in 1875.
The Withington machine was an improvement on the binding device
patented by Locke in 1865. McCormick built 50,000 of these
machines between 1877 and 1885. It was a simple mechanism which
consisted mainly of two steel fingers that moved back and forth and
twisted a wire band around each sheaf of grain.
Farmers did not take kindly to the wire binder. They said that wire
would mix with the straw and kill their horses and cattle.
 The Deering Twine Binder of 1879

The Twine Binder.

This is the perfected Marsh harvester with a perfected Appleby twine
binding attachment and was first put out by the Deering Company in
1879.

The McCormick Twine Binder of 1881 with the Appleby Binding

Attachment, which Used Twine Instead of Wire

[571]
 A Tractor Pulling Five Harvester Binders
These machines cut a swath 40 feet wide in the grain field, gathering the grain
into bundles and dropping them alongside to be picked up by the sweep rake.

This was the situation in the harvesting industry about the time that
William Deering took an active interest. He looked about for a better
machine. He found John F. Appleby, who, in 1878, had perfected a
twine binder attachment. When Deering saw the strong steel arms
flash a cord around a bundle of grain, tie a knot, cut the cord and
fling off the sheaf, he knew he had what the world needed. Appleby
began working on his invention in 1858, but accomplished nothing
until 1869 when he took out his first patent on a “wire binder.” In
1874 he began what is known as the Appleby twine binder, operating
one in 1875 and 1876 and several in 1877. In 1879 Deering bought
out Gammon, joined forces with Appleby, moved the factory from
Plano to Chicago in 1880, and began putting out twine binders. In
1881 McCormick, also, and Champion began building the Appleby
binder.
 The Progressive Farmer now Uses a Mechanical
Manure Spreader to Increase the Productiveness
of His Land

The modern spreader is built low and equipped

with a special wide spread attachment which
throws the manure well beyond the wheels.

A Grain Drill with Disk and Chain Attachments

This drill is large enough to require the strength of four
horses to pull it.

[573]
 A Small Kerosene Tractor can Pull Two or Three Grain Drills Fastened Together by
Special Tractor Hitches

With the development of an attachment to bind with twine, a new

problem arose—where to get a cheap serviceable twine. William
Deering again arose to the occasion. He met Edwin H. Fitler in
Philadelphia, one of the three twine makers in the United States, and
after a good deal of persuasion induced him to take an order for a
single-strand binder twine. From that time on, all manufacturers have
been building practically the same machine—the Appleby binding
attachment on the Marsh type of harvester which, in turn, was
founded on the McCormick cutting mechanism. The self-binder of
today is of that type.

Other Machines Follow.

The completion of the reaper set the wheels of farm invention
spinning. It was the first great battle successfully won and gave a
spirit of confidence and an irresistible spirit of victory to the men who
were lifting the burdens off the bodies of men. After the reaper, the
mowing machine came naturally. Following the binder in easy
sequences came the corn binder, push binder, header and harvester
thresher.
Every variety of haying machine, from side-delivery rake and tedder
to sweep rake and loader, came eventually to make hay-making easy.
The thresher, ensilage cutter, riding plow, disk harrow, cream
separator, manure spreader and seeding machines succeeded in
making the raising of the world’s food a profitable occupation; at the
same time, they made it an easy one. Lately, the internal combustion
engine, together with its application in the kerosene tractor, promises
to make the farmer’s emancipation practically complete. If Herbert
Casson could say “The United States owes more to the reaper than it
does to the factory or the railroad or the Wall Street stock exchange,”
what can be said of these myriad machines that now do the food-
grower’s work for him?
Where formerly nearly all the people had to engage in food raising
and even then went to bed hungry, now nearly half the people live
away from the farm and there is a great abundance of bread and of
food.

What Causes an Echo?

An echo is caused by the reflection of sound waves at some
moderately even surface, such as the wall of a building. The waves of
sound on meeting the surface are turned back in their course,
according to the same laws that hold for reflection of light. In order
that the echo may return to the place from which the sound
proceeds, the reflection must be direct, and not at an angle to the
line of transmission, otherwise the echo may be heard by others, but
not by the transmitter of the sound. This may be effected either by a
reflecting surface at right angles to the line of transmission or by
several reflecting surfaces, which end in bringing the sound back to
the point of issue.
Sound travels about 1,125 feet in a second; consequently, an
observer standing at half that distance from the reflecting object
would hear the echo a second later than the sound. Such an echo
would repeat as many words and syllables as could be heard in a
second. As the distance decreases the echo repeats fewer syllables
till it becomes monosyllabic.
The most practiced ear cannot distinguish in a second more than
from nine to twelve successive sounds, so that a distance of not less
than sixty feet is needed to enable a common ear to distinguish
between the echo and the original sounds. At a near distance the
echo only clouds the original sounds. This often interferes with the
hearing in churches and other large buildings. Woods, rocks and
mountains produce natural echoes in every variety, for which
particular localities have become famous.
In Greek mythology, Echo was a nymph (one of the Oreads) who fell
in love with Narcissus, and because he did not reciprocate her
affection she pined away until nothing was left but her voice.
 The Story of the Motion-Picture
[69]
Projecting Machine

Few businesses have had a more spectacular rise than the motion-
picture industry. It may be true that there are other industries of
recent growth that are more highly capitalized than the motion-
picture business. I shall not make any comparisons nor look up
statistics, but will present some facts about an enterprise that,
scientifically, industrially and commercially, is one of the great
wonders of the world.
It is fair to estimate that more than $375,000,000 is invested in this
business in the United States. It looks like an exaggeration or as if
the typesetter had slipped in several extra ciphers by mistake, does it
not? Nevertheless, the estimate is said to be extremely conservative.
In the first place, it concerns every branch of the business, of which
there are five. Taken in their natural order there are: 1. The
manufacture of motion-picture cameras. 2. The manufacture of films.
3. The taking of the pictures. 4. The manufacture of the projecting
machines. 5. The exhibition of the pictures.
The projecting machine is the subject of this story. One sees very
little about it in the newspapers and popular magazines, in spite of
the fact that it is the keystone, so to speak, of the motion-picture
industry. Of the entire business, in all its ramifications, this machine
is the most important not only from a technical standpoint, but as
regards both the pleasure and safety of the public. Here, again, a
great deal of money is invested. Its manufacture involves costly and
highly specialized machinery, the most intelligent of mechanics and
the constant thought and endeavor of the men at the head of the
business.
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