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CLEARLY VISUAL BASIC®
P R O G R A M M I N G W I T H M I C R O S O F T ® V I S U A L B A S I C ® 2 01 0
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 SECOND EDITION

CLEARLY VISUAL BASIC ®

PROGRAMMING WITH MICROSOFT ® VISUAL BASIC ® 2010

DIANE ZAK

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Clearly Visual Basic: ª 2012 Course Technology, Cengage Learning
Programming with Microsoft
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 v

Brief Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
C H AP T E R 1 I Am Not a Control Freak! (Control Structures) . . . . . . . . . .1
C H AP T E R 2 First You Need to Plan the Party (Problem-Solving Process) . . . 11
C H AP T E R 3 I Need a Tour Guide (Introduction to Visual Basic 2010) . . . . . 27
C H AP T E R 4 Do It Yourself Designing (Designing Interfaces) . . . . . . . . . 49
C H AP T E R 5 The Secret Code (Assignment Statements) . . . . . . . . . . . 67
C H AP T E R 6 Where Can I Store This? (Variables and Constants) . . . . . . . 81
C H AP T E R 7 What’s Wrong with It? (Syntax and Logic Errors) . . . . . . . . .101
C H AP T E R 8 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions (Selection Structure) . . . . . .115
C H AP T E R 9 Time to Leave the Nest (Nested Selection Structures) . . . . . .139
C H AP T E R 1 0 So Many Paths . . . So Little Time (Multiple-Alternative
Selection Structures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
C H AP T E R 1 1 Testing, Testing . . . 1, 2, 3 (Selecting Test Data) . . . . . . . .183
C H AP T E R 1 2 How Long Can This Go On? (Pretest Loops) . . . . . . . . . . .203
C H AP T E R 1 3 Do It, Then Ask Permission (Posttest Loops) . . . . . . . . . .231
C H AP T E R 1 4 Let Me Count the Ways (Counter-Controlled Loops) . . . . . . .241
C H AP T E R 1 5 I’m on the Inside; You’re on the Outside (Nested Loops) . . . . .261
C H AP T E R 1 6 I Hear You Are Breaking Up (Sub Procedures) . . . . . . . . . .279
C H AP T E R 1 7 Talk to Me (Function Procedures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
C H AP T E R 1 8 A Ray of Sunshine (One-Dimensional Arrays) . . . . . . . . . .319
C H AP T E R 1 9 Parallel and Dynamic Universes (More on One-Dimensional
Arrays) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
C H AP T E R 2 0 Table Tennis, Anyone? (Two-Dimensional Arrays) . . . . . . . .363
C H AP T E R 2 1 Building Your Own Structure (Structures) . . . . . . . . . . . .383
vi
CONTENTS

C H AP T E R 2 2 I’m Saving for the Future (Sequential Access Files) . . . . . . .399

C H AP T E R 2 3 The String Section (String Manipulation) . . . . . . . . . . . .417
C H AP T E R 2 4 I’m Suffering from Information Overload (Access Databases) . . .439
C H AP T E R 2 5 The Missing “LINQ” (Querying a Database) . . . . . . . . . . .461
C H AP T E R 2 6 I Love This Class (Creating a Class) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
C H AP T E R 2 7 Getting “Web-ified” (Web Applications) . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
A PP E N D I X A Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
A PP E N D I X B Answers to Mini-Quizzes and TRY THIS Exercises . . . . . . . .529
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
 vii

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

C H AP T E R 1 I Am Not a Control Freak! (Control Structures) . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Control Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Sequence Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
The Selection Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
The Repetition Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

C H AP T E R 2 First You Need to Plan the Party (Problem-Solving Process) . . . . 11

How Do Programmers Solve Problems? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Step 1 Analyze the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Step 2 Plan the Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Step 3 Desk Check the Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

C H AP T E R 3 I Need a Tour Guide (Introduction to Visual Basic 2010) . . . . . . 27

Ok, the Algorithm Is Correct. What’s Next? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Creating a Visual Basic Windows Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
So Many Windows! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Creating the User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Save, Save, Save . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Whose Property Is It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Using the Format Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Lock Them Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Ok, Let’s See the Interface in Action! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Closing the Current Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Opening an Existing Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Exiting Visual Studio 2010 or Visual Basic 2010 Express . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
viii
CONTENTS

C H AP T E R 4 Do It Yourself Designing (Designing Interfaces) . . . . . . . . . 49

Delegating the Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Making the Interface More User Friendly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Do What I Tell You to Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The Me.Close() Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

C H AP T E R 5 The Secret Code (Assignment Statements) . . . . . . . . . . . 67

The Fun Starts Here . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Val Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Who’s in Charge of This Operation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Your Assignment, if You Choose to Accept It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

C H AP T E R 6 Where Can I Store This? (Variables and Constants) . . . . . . . . 81

Using Storage Bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
So, What’s Your Type? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Let’s Play the Name Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
You’ll Need a Reservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
How Many Variables Should I Use? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
The TryParse Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Check, Please…I’m Ready to Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Using Constants to Keep Things…Well, the Same . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Dressing Up the Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

C H AP T E R 7 What’s Wrong with It? (Syntax and Logic Errors) . . . . . . . . .101

There’s a Bug in My Soup! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Finding Syntax Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Locating Logic Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
I’ve Reached My Breaking Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

C H AP T E R 8 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions (Selection Structure) . . . . . .115

Someone Might Need to Make a Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Going Beyond Rob’s Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The If…Then…Else Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
 ix

Examining Another Problem Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Hey, That’s Not the Way I Would Have Done It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

C H AP T E R 9 Time to Leave the Nest (Nested Selection Structures) . . . . . .139

Nested Selection Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Putting Rob’s Problems Aside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Let’s Go to the Swap Meet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
That’s Way Too Logical for Me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Summary of Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

C H AP T E R 1 0 So Many Paths . . . So Little Time (Multiple-Alternative

Selection Structures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Which Way Should I Go? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Coding the Fitness For Good Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Don’t Be So Sensitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
What’s the Next Case on the Docket? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Using Select Case in the Fitness For Good Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Specifying a Range of Values in a Case Clause’s ExpressionList . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Coding the ABC Corporation Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Using Radio Buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Coding the Gentry Supplies Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

C H AP T E R 1 1 Testing, Testing . . . 1, 2, 3 (Selecting Test Data) . . . . . . . .183

Will Your Application Pass the Test? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
The Only Cookies Version 1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
The Only Cookies Version 2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Stop! This Is a Restricted Area! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
The Shady Hollow Hotel Version 1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
The Shady Hollow Hotel Version 2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
I Need to Tell You Something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Just When You Thought It Was Safe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

C H AP T E R 1 2 How Long Can This Go On? (Pretest Loops) . . . . . . . . . . .203

Over and Over Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
x
CONTENTS

The Do…Loop Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Counter Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
My Dream Car Version 1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
My Dream Car Version 2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
The Sales Express Application Counter and Accumulator Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
The InputBox Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Can I Abbreviate That Assignment Statement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

C H AP T E R 1 3 Do It, Then Ask Permission (Posttest Loops) . . . . . . . . . . .231

Testing After the Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
More on the Do…Loop Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Pseudocode and Flowchart Containing a Posttest Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
The Bouncing Robot Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Key Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

C H AP T E R 1 4 Let Me Count the Ways (Counter-Controlled Loops) . . . . . . . .241

When Will It Stop? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Spaceship Version 1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Spaceship Version 2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Hey, Turn That Noise Down! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
The Monthly Payment Calculator Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
The Financial.Pmt Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
But They Said There Were No Strings Attached . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

C H AP T E R 1 5 I’m on the Inside; You’re on the Outside (Nested Loops) . . . . . .261

One Loop Within Another Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Clock Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Revisiting the Monthly Payment Calculator Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
But I Want to Do It a Different Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

C H AP T E R 1 6 I Hear You Are Breaking Up (Sub Procedures) . . . . . . . . . .279

What’s the Proper Procedure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
The Weekly Pay Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Send Me Something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Just Give Me Its Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Where Do You Live? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
 xi

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

C H AP T E R 1 7 Talk to Me (Function Procedures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303

What’s the Answer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Price Calculator Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Revisiting the Total Due Calculator Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Which Way Is Better? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

C H AP T E R 1 8 A Ray of Sunshine (One-Dimensional Arrays) . . . . . . . . . . .319

Let’s Join the Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
My Friends Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Salary Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
States Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

C H AP T E R 1 9 Parallel and Dynamic Universes (More on One-Dimensional

Arrays) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
We Share the Same Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Will You Share That with Me? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
But I Don’t Know How Many There Are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

C H AP T E R 2 0 Table Tennis, Anyone? (Two-Dimensional Arrays) . . . . . . . . .363

Let’s Table That Idea for Now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Revisiting the Employee Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
The GetLowerBound and GetUpperBound Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Calendar Orders Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

C H AP T E R 2 1 Building Your Own Structure (Structures) . . . . . . . . . . . .383

Putting the Pieces Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Willow Pools Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Revisiting the Employee Application…Again! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
xii
CONTENTS

Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

C H AP T E R 2 2 I’m Saving for the Future (Sequential Access Files) . . . . . . . .399

Sequential Access Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Write Those Lines of Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Now Read Those Lines of Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

C H AP T E R 2 3 The String Section (String Manipulation) . . . . . . . . . . . . .417

Working with Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
How Many Characters Are There? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Get Rid of Those Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
The Product ID Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Let’s Make a Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
I Need to Fit This in Somewhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
The Phone Numbers Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Where Does It Begin? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
I Just Want a Part of It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
The Rearrange Name Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Throw Away Those Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
The Last Name Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
I Like This Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Modifying the Product Id Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

C H AP T E R 2 4 I’m Suffering from Information Overload (Access Databases) . . .439

Keeping Good Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Connecting…Connecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Let the Computer Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
The Copy to Output Directory Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
How Does Visual Basic Do It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Thank You for Catching My Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
I’ll Use My Own Controls, Thank You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Coding the Next Record and Previous Record Buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

C H AP T E R 2 5 The Missing “LINQ” (Querying a Database) . . . . . . . . . . . .461

Asking Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Revisiting the Raye Industries Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
 xiii

One for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

C H AP T E R 2 6 I Love This Class (Creating a Class) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475

That’s a Real Classy Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Revisiting the Willow Pools Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Who Owns That Property? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Behave Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Constructive Behavior Is the Key to Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Methods Other than Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Using the Pattern to Create an Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Pool Supplies Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

C H AP T E R 2 7 Getting “Web-ified” (Web Applications) . . . . . . . . . . . . .497

Web Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Creating a Web Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Adding the Default.aspx Web Page to the Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Customizing a Web Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Adding Static Text to a Web Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Viewing a Web Page in Full Screen View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Adding Another Web Page to the Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Adding a Link Button Control to a Web Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Starting a Web Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Adding an Image to a Web Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Closing and Opening an Existing Web Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Repositioning a Control on a Web Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Dynamic Web Pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Coding the Submit Button’s Click Event Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Validating User Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

A PP E N D I X A Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527

A PP E N D I X B Answers to Mini-Quizzes and TRY THIS Exercises . . . . . . . . .529
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
xiv

Preface

Clearly Visual Basic: Programming with Microsoft Visual Basic 2010, Second Edition is designed
for a beginning programming course. The book assumes students have no previous
programming knowledge or experience. However, students should be familiar with basic
Windows skills and file management. The book’s primary focus is on teaching programming
concepts, with a secondary focus on teaching the Visual Basic programming language. In other
words, the purpose of the book is to teach students how to solve a problem that requires a
computer solution. The Visual Basic language is used as a means of verifying that the solution
works correctly.

Organization and Coverage

Clearly Visual Basic: Programming with Microsoft Visual Basic 2010, Second Edition
contains 27 chapters and two appendices. In the chapters, students with no previous
programming experience learn how to analyze a problem specification and then plan and
create an appropriate computer solution. Pseudocode and flowcharts are used to plan the
solution, and desk-check tables are used to verify that the solution is correct before it is
coded. Students code the solutions using the Visual Basic 2010 language, and then desk-
check the code before it is executed. An entire chapter is devoted to teaching students how
to select appropriate test data. By the end of the book, students will have learned how to
write Visual Basic statements such as If…Then…Else, Select Case, Do…Loop, and
For…Next. Students also will learn how to create and manipulate variables, constants,
strings, sequential access files, structures, classes, and arrays. In addition, they will learn how
to connect an application to a Microsoft Access database, and then use Language Integrated
Query (LINQ) to query the database. They also will learn how to create simple Web
applications. The text also introduces students to OOP concepts and terminology. Appendix
A provides a listing of the data types available in Visual Basic. Appendix B contains the
answers to the Mini-Quizzes and TRY THIS Exercises in each chapter.

Approach
Rather than focusing on a specific programming language, Clearly Visual Basic:
Programming with Microsoft Visual Basic 2010, Second Edition focuses on programming
concepts that are common to all programming languages—such as input, output, selection,
and repetition. Concepts are introduced, illustrated, and reinforced using simple examples
and applications, which are more appropriate for a first course in programming. The
concepts are spread over many short chapters, allowing students to master the material one
small piece at a time. Because its emphasis is on teaching the fundamentals of programming,
the book covers only the basic controls, properties, and events available in Visual Basic.
Each chapter provides the steps for creating and/or coding an application that uses the
concepts covered in the chapter. The videos and PDF files that accompany each chapter are
designed to help students master the chapter’s concepts.
Another Random Scribd Document
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 169 Digesta, xlix. 16. 6. 7.

170 Ibid. xlviii. 21. 3 pr. Cf. Bourquelot, op. cit. iii. 543 sq.;
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, v. 326; Lecky,
History of European Morals, i. 219.

171 Stäudlin, Geschichte der Vorstellungen und Lehren vom

Selbstmorde, p. 62 sq.

172 Cicero, Cato Major, 20 (72 sq.).

173 Idem, De officiis, i. 31 (112).

In no question of morality was there a greater difference between

classical and Christian doctrines than in regard to suicide. The earlier
Fathers of the Church still allowed, or even approved of, suicide in
certain cases, namely, when committed in order to procure
martyrdom,174 or to avoid apostacy, or to retain the crown of
virginity. To bring death upon ourselves voluntarily, says Lactantius,
is a wicked and impious deed; “but when urged to the alternative,
either of forsaking God and relinquishing faith, or of expecting all
torture and death, then it is that undaunted in spirit we defy that
death with all its previous threats and terrors which others fear.”175
Eusebius and other ecclesiastical writers mention several instances
of Christian women putting an end to their lives when their chastity
was in danger, and their acts are spoken of with tenderness, if not
approbation; indeed, some of them were admitted into the calendar
of saints.176 This admission was due to the extreme honour in which
virginity was held by the Fathers; St. Jerome, who denied that it was
lawful in times of persecution to die by one’s own hands, made an
exception for cases in which a person’s chastity was at stake.177 But
even this exception was abolished by St. Augustine. He allows that
the virgins who laid violent hands upon themselves are worthy of
compassion, but declares that there was no necessity for their doing
so, since chastity is a virtue of the mind which is not lost by the
body being in captivity to the will and superior force of another. He
argues that there is no passage in the canonical Scriptures which
permits us to destroy ourselves either with a view to obtaining
immortality or to avoiding calamity. On the contrary, suicide is
prohibited in the commandment, “Thou shalt not kill,” namely,
“neither thyself nor another”; for he who kills himself kills no other
but a man.178 This doctrine, which assimilates suicide with murder,
was adopted by the Church.179 Nay, self-murder was declared to be
the worst form of murder, “the most grievous thing of all”;180 already
St. Chrysostom had declared that “if it is base to destroy others,
much more is it to destroy one’s self.”181 The self-murderer was
deprived of rights which were granted to all other criminals. In the
sixth century a Council at Orleans enjoined that “the oblations of
those who were killed in the commission of any crime may be
received, except of such as laid violent hands on themselves”;182
and a subsequent Council denied self-murderers the usual rites of
Christian burial.183 It was even said that Judas committed a greater
sin in killing himself than in betraying his master Christ to a certain
death.184
174 See Barbeyrac, Traité de la morale des Pères de l’Église, pp.
18, 122 sq.; Buonafede, Istoria critica e filosofica del suicidio, p.
135 sqq.; Lecky, op. cit. ii. 45 sq.

175 Lactantius, Divines Institutiones, vi. (‘De vero cultu’) 17

(Migne, Patrologiæ cursus, vi. 697).

176 Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, viii. 12 (Migne, op. cit. Ser.

Graeca, xx. 769 sqq.), 14 (ibid. col. 785 sqq.). St. Ambrose, De
virginibus, xiii. 7 (Migne, op. cit. xvi. 229 sqq.). St. Chrysostom,
Homilia encomiastica in S. Martyrem Pelagiam (Migne, op. cit. Ser.
Graeca, l. 579 sqq.).

177 St. Jerome, Commentarii in Jonam, i. 12 (Migne, op. cit. xxv.

1129).

178 St. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, i. 16 sqq.

179 Gratian, Decretum, ii. 23. 5. 9. 3.

180 Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologica, ii.-ii. 64. 5. 3.

181 St. Chrysostom, In Epistolam ad Galatas commentarius, i. 4

(Migne, op. cit. Ser. Graeca, lxi. 618 sq.).
 182 Concilium Aurelianense II. A.D. 533, can. 15 (Labbe-Mansi,
Sacrorum Conciliorum collectio, viii. 837). See also Concilium
Autisiodorense, A.D. 578, can. 17 (Labbe-Mansi, ix. 913).

183 Concilium Bracarense II. A.D. 563, cap. 16 (Labbe-Mansi, op.

cit. ix. 779).

184 Damhouder, Praxis rerum criminalium, lviii. 2 sq., p. 258.

See Gratian, op. cit. ii. 33. 3. 3. 38. At the trial of the Marquise de
Brinvilliers in 1676, the presiding judge said to the prisoner that
“the greatest of all her crimes, horrible as they were, was, not the
poisoning of her father and brothers, but her attempt to poison
herself” (Ives, Classification of Crimes, p. 36).

According to the Christian doctrine, as formulated by Thomas

Aquinas, suicide is utterly unlawful for three reasons. First,
everything naturally loves itself and preserves itself in being; suicide
is against a natural inclination and contrary to the charity which a
man ought to bear towards himself, and consequently a mortal sin.
Secondly, by killing himself a person does an injury to the
community of which he is a part. Thirdly, “life is a gift divinely
bestowed on man, and subject to His power who ‘killeth and maketh
alive’; and therefore he who takes his own life sins against God, as
he who kills another man’s slave sins against the master to whom
the slave belongs, and as he sins who usurps the office of judge on
a point not referred to him; for to God alone belongs judgment of
life and death.”185 The second of these arguments is borrowed from
Aristotle, and is entirely foreign to the spirit of early Christianity. The
notion of patriotism being a moral duty was habitually discouraged
by it, and, as Mr. Lecky observes, “it was impossible to urge the civic
argument against suicide without at the same time condemning the
hermit life, which in the third century became the ideal of the
Church.”186 But the other arguments are deeply rooted in some of
the fundamental doctrines of Christianity—in the sacredness of
human life, in the duty of absolute submission to God’s will, and in
the extreme importance attached to the moment of death. The
earthly life is a preparation for eternity; sufferings which are sent by
God are not to be evaded, but to be endured.187 The man who
deliberately takes away the life which was given him by the Creator
displays the utmost disregard for the will and authority of his Master;
and, worst of all, he does so in the very last minute of his life, when
his doom is sealed for ever. His deed, as Thomas Aquinas says, is
“the most dangerous thing of all, because no time is left to expiate it
by repentance.”188 He who kills a fellow-creature does not in the
same degree renounce the protection of God; he kills only the body,
whereas the self-murderer kills both the body and the soul.189 By
denying the latter the right of Christian burial the Church recognises
that he has placed himself outside her pale.
185 Thomas Aquinas, op. cit. ii.-ii. 64. 5.

186 Lecky, History of European Morals, ii. 44.

187 Cf. St. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, i. 23.

188 Thomas Aquinas, op. cit. ii.-ii. 64. 5. 3. Cf. St. Augustine, De
Civitate Dei, i. 25.

189 Damhouder, op. cit. lxxxviii. 1 sq., p. 258.

The condemnation of the Church influenced the secular legislation.

The provisions of the Councils were introduced into the law-books.
In France Louis IX. enforced the penalty of confiscating the self-
murderer’s property,190 and laws to the same effect were passed in
other European countries.191 Louis XIV. assimilated the crime of
suicide to that of lèze majesté.192 According to the law of Scotland,
“self-murder is as highly criminal as the killing our neighbour.”193 In
England suicide is still regarded by the law as murder committed by
a man on himself;194 and, unless declared insane, the self-murderer
forfeited his property as late as the year 1870, when forfeitures for
felony were abolished.195 In Russia, to this day, the testamentary
dispositions of a suicide are deemed void by the law.196
190 Les Établissements de Saint Louis, i. 92, vol. ii. 150.

191 Bourquelot, op. cit. iv. 263. Morselli, op. cit. p. 196 sq.
 192 Louis XIV., ‘Ordonnance criminelle,’ A.D. 1670, xxii. 1, in
Isambert, Decrusy, and Taillandier, Recueil général des anciennes
lois françaises, xviii. 414.

193 Erskine-Rankine, Principles of the Law of Scotland, p. 559.

194 Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, iii. 104. For
earlier times see Bracton, De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliæ,
fol. 150, vol. ii. 504 sq.

195 Stephen, op. cit. iii. 105.

196 Foinitzki, in von Liszt, La législation pénale comparée, p.

548.

The horror of suicide also found a vent in outrages committed on

the dead body. Of a woman who drowned herself in Edinburgh in
1598, we are told that her body was “harled through the town
backwards, and thereafter hanged on the gallows.”197 In France, as
late as the middle of the eighteenth century, self-murderers were
dragged upon a hurdle through the streets with the face turned to
the ground; they were then hanged up with the head downwards,
and finally thrown into the common sewer.198 However, in most
cases the treatment to which suicides bodies were subject was not
originally meant as a punishment, but was intended to prevent their
spirits from causing mischief. All over Europe wandering tendencies
have been ascribed to their ghosts.199 In some countries the corpse
of a suicide is supposed to make barren the earth with which it
comes in contact,200 or to produce hailstorms or tempests201 or
drought.202 At Lochbroom, in the North-West of Scotland, the people
believe that if the remains of a self-murderer be taken to any
burying-ground which is within sight of the sea or of cultivated land,
this would prove disastrous both to fishing and agriculture, or, in the
words of the people, would cause “famine (or dearth) on sea and
land”; hence the custom has been to inter suicides in out-of-the-way
places among the lonely solitudes of the mountains.203 The practice
of burying them apart from other dead has been very wide-spread in
Europe, and in many cases there are obvious indications that it arose
from fear.204 In the North-East of Scotland a suicide was buried
outside a churchyard, close beneath the wall, and the grave was
marked by a single large stone, or by a small cairn, to which the
passing traveller was bound to cast a stone; and afterwards, when
the suicide’s body was allowed to rest in the churchyard, it was laid
below the wall in such a position that no one could walk over the
grave, as the people believed that if a woman enceinte stepped over
such a grave, her child would quit this earth by its own act.205 In
England persons against whom a coroner’s jury had found a verdict
of felo de se were buried at cross-roads, with a stake driven through
the body so as to prevent their ghosts from walking.206 For the same
purpose the bodies of suicides were in many cases burned.207 And
when removed from the house where the act had been committed,
they were commonly carried out, not by the door, but by a
window,208 or through a perforation specially made for the occasion
in the door,209 or through a hole under the threshold,210 in order
that the ghost should not find its way back into the house, or
perhaps with a view to keeping the entrance of the house free from
dangerous infection.211
197 Ross, ‘Superstitions as to burying Suicides in the Highlands,’
in Celtic Magazine, xii. 354.

198 Serpillon, Code Criminel, ii. 223. Cf. Louis XIV., ‘Ordonnance
criminelle,’ A.D. 1670, xxii. 1, in Isambert, Decrusy, and Taillandier,
op. cit. xviii. 414.

199 Ross, in Celtic Magazine, xii. 352 (Highlanders of Scotland).

Atkinson, Forty Years in a Moorland Parish, p. 217. Hyltén-
Cavallius, Wärend och Wirdarne, i. 472 sq. (Swedes). Allardt,
‘Nyländska folkseder och bruk,’ in Nyland, iv. 114 (Swedish
Finlanders). Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der
Gegenwart, §756, p. 474 sq. Schiffer, ‘Totenfetische bei den
Polen,’ in Am Ur-Quell, iii. 50 (Polanders), 52 (Lithuanians).
Volkov, ‘Der Selbstmörder in Lithauen,’ ibid. v. 87. von Wlislocki,
‘Tod und Totenfetische im Volkglauben der Siebenbürger Sachsen,’
ibid. iv. 53. Lippert, Christenthum, Volksglaube und Volksbrauch,
p. 391. Dyer, The Ghost World, pp. 53, 151. Gaidoz, ‘Le suicide,’ in
Mélusine, iv. 12.

200 Schiffer, in Am Ur-Quell, iii. 52 (Lithuanians).

201 Ibid. pp. 50 (Polanders), 53 (Lithuanians). von Wlislocki,

Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Magyaren, p. 61. Strausz,
Die Bulgaren, p. 455. Prexl, ‘Geburts- und Todtengebräuche der
Rumänen in Siebenbürgen,’ in Globus, lvii. 30.

202 Strausz, op. cit. p. 455 (Bulgarians).

203 Ross, in Celtic Magazine, xii. 350 sq.

204 Gaidoz, in Mélusine, iv. 12. Frank, System einer vollständigen

medicinischen Polizey, iv. 499. Moore, op. cit. i. 310 (Danes).
Schiffer, in Am Ur-Quell, iii. 50 (Polanders), 53 (Lithuanians).
Volkov, ibid. v. 87 (Lithuanians). Strausz, op. cit. p. 455
(Bulgarians).

205 Gregor, Folk-Lore of the North-East of Scotland, p. 213 sq.

206 Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, iii. 105.

Atkinson, op. cit. p. 217. This custom was formally abolished in
1823 by 4 Geo. IV. c. 52 (Stephen, op. cit. iii. 105). Why were
suicides buried at cross-roads? Possibly because the cross was
supposed to disperse the evil energy ascribed to their bodies.
Both in Europe and India the cross-road has, since ancient times,
been a favourite place to divest oneself of diseases or other
influences (Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart,
§§ 483, 484, 492, 508, 514, 522, 545, pp. 325, 326, 331, 341,
345, 349, 361. Hymns of the Atharva-Veda, pp. 272, 473, 519.
Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, pp. 267, 268 n. 1). In the
sacred books of India it is said that “a student who has broken
the vow of chastity shall offer an ass to Nirriti on a cross-road”
(Gautama, xxiii. 17), and that a person who has previously
undergone certain other purification ceremonies “is freed from all
crimes, even mortal sins, after looking on a cross-road at a pot
filled with water, and reciting the text, ‘Simhe me manyuh’”
(Baudhâyana, iv. 7. 7). In the hills of Northern India and as far as
Madras, an approved charm for getting rid of a disease of
demoniacal origin is to plant a stake where four roads meet, and
to bury grains underneath, which crows disinter and eat (North
Indian Notes and Queries, i. § 652, p. 100; Madden, ‘The Turaee
and Outer Mountains of Kumaoon,’ in Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal,
xvii. pt. i. 583; Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of Northern
India, i. 290). In the Province of Bihār, “in cases of sickness
various articles are exposed in a saucer at a cross-road”
(Grierson, Bihār Peasant Life, p. 407). According to a Bulgarian
tale, Lot was enjoined by the priest to plant on a cross-road three
charred twigs in order to free himself from his sin (Strausz, op.
cit. p. 115). The Gypsies of Servia believe that a thief may divert
from himself all suspicions by painting with blood a cross and a
dot above it on the spot where he committed the theft (von
Wlislocki, ‘Menschenblut im Glauben der Zigeuner,’ in Am Ur-Quell,
iii. 64 sq.). In Morocco the cross is used as a charm against the
evil eye, and the chief reason for this is, I believe, that it is
regarded as a conductor of the baneful energy emanating from
the eye, dispersing it in all the quarters of the wind and thus
preventing it from injuring the person or object looked at
(Westermarck, ‘Magic Origin of Moorish Designs,’ in Jour. Anthr.
Inst. xxxiv. 214). In Japan, if a criminal belonging to one of the
lower classes commits suicide, his body is crucified (Globus, xviii.
197). When, under Tarquinius Priscus (or Tarquinius Superbus),
many Romans preferred voluntary death to compulsory labour in
the cloaca, or artificial canals by which the sewage was carried
into the Tiber, the king ordered that their bodies should be
crucified and abandoned to birds and beasts of prey (Pliny,
Historia naturalis, xxxvi. 24; Servius, Commentarii in Virgilii
Æneidos, xii. 603). The reason for thus crucifying the bodies of
self-murderers is not stated; but it is interesting to notice, in this
connection, the idea expressed by some Christian writers that the
cross of the Saviour symbolised the distribution of his benign
influence in all directions (d’Ancona, Origini del teatro italiano, i.
646; Tauler, quoted by Peltzer, Deutsche Mystik und deutsche
Kunst, p. 191. I am indebted to my friend Dr. Yrjö Hirn for
drawing my attention to this idea). With reference to persons who
had killed a father, mother, brother, or child, Plato says in his
‘Laws’ (ix. 873):—“If he be convicted, the servants of the judges
and the magistrates shall slay him at an appointed place without
the city where three ways meet, and there expose his body
naked, and each of the magistrates on behalf of the whole city
shall take a stone and cast it upon the head of the dead man, and
so deliver the city from pollution; after that, they shall bear him to
the borders of the land, and cast him forth unburied, according to
law.” The duels by which the ancient Swedes were legally
compelled to repair their wounded honour were to be fought on a
place where three roads met (Leffler, Om den fornsvenska
hednalagen, p. 40 sq.; supra, i. 502). In various countries it has
been the custom to bury the dead at cross-roads (Grimm, ‘Ueber
das Verbrennen der Leichen,’ in Kleinere Schriften, ii. 288
(Bohemians). Lippert, Die Religionen der europäischen
Culturvölker, p. 310 (Slavonians); Winternitz, Das altindische
Hochzeitsrituell, p. 68; Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, pp. 267,
268, 562 n. 3)—a custom which may have given rise to the idea
that cross-roads are haunted (Winternitz, op. cit. p. 68;
Oldenberg, op. cit. p. 267 sq.; cf. Wuttke, op. cit. § 108, p. 89
sq.).

207 Bourquelot, loc. cit. iv. 263. Hyltén-Cavallius, op. cit. i. 459;
Nordström, Bidrag till den svenska samhälls-författningens
historia, ii. 331 (Swedes), von Wlislocki, ‘Tod und Totenfetische im
Volkglauben der Siebenbürger Sachsen,’ in Am Ur-Quell, iv. 53.

208 Wuttke, op. cit. § 756, p. 474; Frank, op. cit. iv. 498 sq.;
Lippert, Der Seelencult, p. 11 (people in various parts of
Germany). Schiffer, in Am Ur-Quell, iii. 50 (Polanders).

209 Bourquelot, loc. cit. iv. 264 (at Abbeville).

210 Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer, p. 726 sqq. Hyltén-

Cavallius, op. cit. i. 472 sq. (Swedes).

211 See infra, on Regard for the Dead. Contact with a self-
murderer’s body is considered polluting (Prexl, ‘Geburts- und
Todtengebräuche der Rumänen in Siebenbürgen,’ in Globus, lvii.
 30; Hyltén-Cavallius, Wärend och Wirdarne, i. 459, 460, and ii.
412). We are told that in the eighteenth century people did not
dare to cut down a person who had hanged himself, though he
was found still alive (Frank, op. cit. iv. 499). Among the Bannavs
of Cambodia everybody who takes part in the burial of a self-
murderer is obliged to undergo a certain ceremony of purification,
whereas no such ceremony is prescribed in the case of other
burials (Mittheil. d. Geogr. Ges. zu Jena, iii. 9).

However, side by side with the extreme seventy with which suicide
is viewed by the Christian Church, we find, even in the Middle Ages,
instances of more humane feelings towards its perpetrator. In
mediæval tales and ballads true lovers die together and are buried in
the same grave; two roses spring through the turf and twine lovingly
together.212 In the later Middle Ages, says M. Bourquelot, “on voit
qu’à mesure qu’on avance, l’antagonisme devient plus prononcé
entre l’esprit religieux et les idées mondaines relativement à la mort
volontaire. Le clergé continue à suivre la route qui a été tracée par
Saint Augustin et à déclarer le suicide criminel et impie; mais la
tristesse et le désespoir n’entendent pas sa voix, ne se souviennent
pas de ses prescriptions.”213 The revival of classical learning,
accompanied as it was by admiration for antiquity and a desire to
imitate its great men, not only increased the number of suicides, but
influenced popular sentiments on the subject.214 Even the Catholic
casuists, and later on philosophers of the school of Grotius and
others, began to distinguish certain cases of legitimate suicide, such
as that committed to avoid dishonour or probable sin, or that of a
condemned person saving himself from torture by anticipating an
inevitable death, or that of a man offering himself to death for the
sake of his friend.215 Sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, permits a
person who is suffering from an incurable and painful disease to take
his own life, provided that he does so with the agreement of the
priests and magistrates; nay, he even maintains that these should
exhort such a man to put an end to a life which is only a burden to
himself and others.216 Donne, the well-known Dean of St. Paul’s,
wrote in his younger days a book in defence of suicide, “a
Declaration,” as he called it, “of that paradoxe, or thesis, that Self-
homicide is not so naturally sin, that it may never be otherwise.” He
there pointed out the fact—which ought never to be overlooked by
those who derive their arguments from “nature”—that some things
may be natural to the species, and yet not natural to every individual
member of it.217 In one of his essays Montaigne pictures classical
cases of suicide with colours of unmistakable sympathy. “La plus
volontaire mort,” he observes, “c’est la plus belle. La vie despend de
la volonté d’aultruy; la mort, de la nostre.”218 The rationalism of the
eighteenth century led to numerous attacks both upon the views of
the Church and upon the laws of the State concerning suicide.
Montesquieu advocated its legitimacy:—“La société est fondée sur un
avantage mutuel; mais lorsqu’elle me devient onéreuse, qui
m’empêche d’y renoncer? La vie m’a été donnée comme une faveur;
je puis donc la rendre lorsqu’elle ne l’est plus: la cause cesse, l’effet
doit donc cesser aussi.”219 Voltaire strongly opposed the cruel laws
which subjected a suicide’s body to outrage and deprived his
children of their heritage.220 If his act is a wrong against society,
what is to be said of the voluntary homicides committed in war,
which are permitted by the laws of all countries? Are they not much
more harmful to the human race than self-murder, which nature
prevents from ever being practised by any large number of men?221
Beccaria pointed out that the State is more wronged by the emigrant
than by the suicide, since the former takes his property with him,
whereas the latter leaves his behind.222 According to Holbach, he
who kills himself is guilty of no outrage on nature or its author; on
the contrary, he follows an indication given by nature when he parts
from his sufferings through the only door which has been left open.
Nor has his country or his family any right to complain of a member
whom it has no means of rendering happy, and from whom it
consequently has nothing more to hope.223 Others eulogised suicide
when committed for a noble end,224 or recommended it on certain
occasions. “Suppose,” says Hume, “that it is no longer in my power
to promote the interest of society; suppose that I am a burthen to it;
suppose that my life hinders some person from being much more
useful to society. In such cases my resignation of life must not only
be innocent but laudable.”225 Hume also attacks the doctrine that
suicide is a transgression of our duty to God. “If it would be no crime
in me to divert the Nile from its course, were I able to do so, how
could it be a crime to turn a few ounces of blood from their natural
channel? Were the disposal of human life so much reserved as the
peculiar province of the Almighty that it were an encroachment on
his right for men to dispose of their own lives, would it not be
equally wrong of them to lengthen out their lives beyond the period
which by the general laws of nature he had assigned to it? My death,
however voluntary, does not happen without the consent of
Providence; when I fall upon my own sword, I receive my death
equally from the hands of the Deity as if it had proceeded from a
lion, a precipice, or a fever.”226
212 See Bourquelot, loc. cit. iv. 248; Gummere, Germanic
Origins, p. 322.

213 Bourquelot, loc. cit. iv. 253.

214 Ibid. iv. 464. Morselli, op. cit. p. 35.

215 Buonafede, op. cit. p. 148 sqq. Lecky, op. cit. ii. 55.

216 More, Utopia, p. 122.

217 Donne, Biathanatos, p. 45. Donne’s book was first

committed to the press in 1644, by his son.

218 Montaigne, Essais, ii. 3 (Œuvres, p. 187).

219 Montesquieu, Lettres Persanes, 76 (Œuvres, p. 53).

220 Voltaire, Commentaire sur le livre Des délits et des peines,

19 (Œuvres complètes, v. 416). Idem, Prix de la justice et de
l’humanité, 5 (ibid. v. 424).

221 Idem, Note to Olympie acte v. scène 7 (Œuvres complètes, i.

826, n. b). Idem, Dictionnaire Philosophique, art. Suicide (ibid.
viii. 236).

222 Beccaria, Dei delitti e delle pene, § 35 (Opere, i. 101).

223 Holbach, Système de la nature, i. 369.

 224 In the early part of the nineteenth century this was done by
Fries, Neue oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft, iii. 197.

225 Hume, ‘Suicide,’in Philosophical Works, iv. 413.

226 Ibid. p. 407 sqq.

Thus the main arguments against suicide which had been set forth
by pagan philosophers and Christian theologians were scrutinised
and found unsatisfactory or at least insufficient to justify that severe
and wholesale censure which was passed on it by the Church and
the State. But a doctrine which has for ages been inculcated by the
leading authorities on morals is not easily overthrown; and when the
old arguments are found fault with new ones are invented. Kant
maintained that a person who disposes of his own life degrades the
humanity subsisting in his person and entrusted to him to the end
that he might uphold it.227 Fichte argued that it is our duty to
preserve our life and to will to live, not for the sake of life, but
because our life is the exclusive condition of the realisation of the
moral law through us.228 According to Hegel it is a contradiction to
speak of a person’s right over his life, since this would imply a right
of a person over himself, and no one can stand above and execute
himself.229 Paley, again, feared that if religion and morality allowed
us to kill ourselves in any case, mankind would have to live in
continual alarm for the fate of their friends and dearest relations230
—just as if there were a very strong temptation for men to shorten
their lives. But common sense is neither a metaphysician nor a
sophist. When not restrained by the yoke of a narrow theology, it is
inclined in most cases to regard the self-murderer as a proper object
of compassion rather than of condemnation, and in some instances
to admire him as a hero. The legislation on the subject therefore
changed as soon as the religious influence was weakened. The laws
against suicide were abolished in France by the Revolution,231 and
afterwards in various other continental countries;232 whilst in
England it became the custom of jurymen to presume absence of a
sound mind in the self-murderer—perjury, as Bentham said, being
the penance which prevented an outrage on humanity.233 These
measures undoubtedly indicate not only a greater regard for the
innocent relatives of the self-murderer, but also a change in the
moral ideas concerning the act itself.
227 Kant, Metaphysische Anfangungsgründe der Tugendlehre, p.
73.

228 Fichte, Das System der Sittenlehre, p. 339 sqq. See also ibid.
pp. 360, 391.

229 Hegel, Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts, § 70, Zusatz,

p. 72.

230 Paley, Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy, iv. 3

(Complete Works, ii. 230).

231 Legoyt, op. cit. p. 109.

232 Bourquelot, loc. cit. iv. 475.

233 Bentham, Principles of Penal Law, ii. 4. 4 (Works, i. 479 sq.).

As appears from this survey of facts, the moral valuation of suicide

varies to an extreme degree. It depends partly on the circumstances
in which the act is committed, partly on the point of view from which
it is regarded and the notions held about the future life. When a
person sacrifices his life for the benefit of a fellow-man or for the
sake of his country or to gratify the supposed desire of a god, his
deed may be an object of the highest praise. It may, further, call
forth approval or admiration as indicating a keen sense of honour or
as a test of courage; in Japan, says Professor Chamberlain, “the
courage to take life—be it one’s own or that of others—ranks
extraordinarily high in public esteem.”234 In other cases suicide is
regarded with indifference as an act which concerns the agent alone.
But for various reasons it is also apt to give rise to moral
disapproval. The injury which the person committing it inflicts upon
himself may excite sympathetic resentment towards him; he may be
looked upon as injurer and injured at the same time. Plato asks in
his ‘Laws’:—“What ought he to suffer who murders his nearest and
so-called dearest friend? I mean, he who kills himself.”235 And the
same point of view is conspicuous in St. Augustine’s argument, that
the more innocent the self-murderer was before he committed his
deed the greater is his guilt in taking his life236—an argument of
particular force in connection with a theology which condemns
suicides to everlasting torments and which regards it as a man’s first
duty to save his soul. The condemnation of killing others may by an
association of ideas lead to a condemnation of killing one’s self,237 as
is suggested by the Christian doctrine that suicide is prohibited in the
commandment, “Thou shalt not kill.” The horror which the act
inspires, the fear of the malignant ghost, and the defiling effect
attributed to the shedding of blood, also tend to make suicide an
object of moral reprobation or to increase the disapproval of it;238
and the same is the case with the exceptional treatment to which
the self-murderer’s body is subject and his supposed annihilation or
miserable existence after death, which easily come to be looked
upon in the light of a punishment.239 Suicide is, moreover, blamed as
an act of moral cowardice,240 and, especially, as an injury inflicted
upon other persons, to whom the agent owed duties from which he
withdrew by shortening his life.241 Even among savages we meet
with the notion that a person is not entitled to treat himself just as
he pleases. Among the Goajiro Indians of Colombia, if anybody
accidentally cuts himself, say with his own knife, or breaks a limb, or
otherwise does himself an injury, his family on the mother’s side
immediately demands blood-money, since, being of their blood, he is
not allowed to spill it without paying for it; the father’s relatives
demand tear-money, and friends present claim compensation to
repay their sorrow at seeing a friend in pain.242 That a similar view is
sometimes taken by savages with regard to suicide appears from a
few statements quoted above.243 The opinion that suicide is an
offence against society at large is particularly likely to prevail in
communities where the interests of the individual are considered
entirely subordinate to the interests of the State. The religious
argument, again, that suicide is a sin against the Creator, an
illegitimate interference with his work and decrees, comes to
prominence in proportion as the moral consciousness is influenced
by theological considerations. In Europe this influence is certainly
becoming less and less. And considering that the religious view of
suicide has been the chief cause of the extreme severity with which
it has been treated in Christian countries, I am unable to subscribe
to the opinion expressed by Professor Durkheim, that the more
lenient judgment passed on it by the public conscience of the
present time is merely accidental and transient. The argument
adduced in support of this opinion leaves out of account the real
causes to which the valuation of suicide is due: it is said that the
moral evolution is not likely to be retrogressive in this particular
point after it has followed a certain course for centuries.244 It is true
that moral progress has a tendency to increase our sense of duty
towards our fellow-men. But at the same time it also makes us more
considerate as regards the motives of conduct; and—not to speak of
suicides committed for the benefit of others—the despair of the self-
murderer will largely serve as a palliation of the wrong which he may
possibly inflict upon his neighbour.
234 Chamberlain, Things Japanese, p. 221.

235 Plato, Leges, ix. 873.

236 St. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, i. 17.

237 See Simmel, Einleitung in die Moralwissenschaft, i. 187.

238 Cf. supra, i. 377.

239 See supra, ii. 237 sqq.; Josephus, De bello Judaico, iii. 8. 5;
Plato, Leges, ix. 873; Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea, v. 11. 2 sq.

240 Hegel, Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts, § 70, Zusatz,

p. 72; Fowler, Progressive Morality, p. 151; &c.

241 English lawyers have represented suicide as an offence both

against God and against the sovereign, who ”has an interest in
the preservation of all his subjects” (Plowden, Commentaries, i.
261; Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, iv. 190.
Cf. Ives, op. cit. p. 40 sq.).

242 Simons, ‘Exploration of the Goajira Peninsula,’ in Proceed.

Roy. Geo. Soc. N. Ser. vii. 790.
243 Supra, ii. 240 sq.

244 Durkheim, Le suicide, p. 377.

CHAPTER XXXVI
 SELF-REGARDING DUTIES AND VIRTUES—INDUSTRY—REST

ACCORDING to current ideas men owe to themselves a variety of

duties similar in kind to those which they owe to their fellow-
creatures. They are not only forbidden to take their own lives, but
are also in some measure considered to be under an obligation to
support their existence, to take care of their bodies, to preserve a
certain amount of personal freedom, not to waste their property, to
exhibit self-respect, and, in general, to promote their own happiness.
And closely related to these self-regarding duties there are self-
regarding virtues, such as diligence, thrift, temperance. In all these
cases, however, the moral judgment is greatly influenced by the
question whether the act, forbearance, or omission, which increases
the person’s own welfare, conflicts or not with the interests of other
people. If it does conflict, opinions vary as to the degree of
selfishness which is recognised as allowable. But judgments
containing moral praise or the inculcation of duty are most
commonly passed upon conduct which involves some degree of self-
sacrifice, not on such as involves self-indulgence.
Moreover, the duties which we owe to ourselves are generally
much less emphasised than those which we owe to others. “Nature,”
says Butler, “has not given us so sensible a disapprobation of
imprudence and folly, either in ourselves or others, as of falsehood,
injustice, and cruelty.”1 Nor does a prudential virtue receive the same
praise as one springing from a desire to promote the happiness of a
fellow-man. Many moralists even maintain that, properly speaking,
there are no self-regarding duties and virtues at all; that useful
action which is useful to ourselves alone is not matter for moral
notice; that in every case duties towards one’s self may be reduced
into duties towards others; that intemperance and extravagant
luxury, for instance, are blamable only because they tend to the
public detriment, and that prudence is a virtue only in so far as it is
employed in promoting public interest.2 But this opinion is hardly in
agreement with the ordinary moral consciousness.
1 Butler, ‘Dissertation on the Nature of Virtue,’ in Analogy of
Religion, &c. p. 339.

2 Hutcheson, Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and

Virtue, pp. 133, 201. Grote, Treatise on the Moral Ideals, p. 77
sqq. Clifford, Lectures and Essays, pp. 298, 335. von Jhering, Der
Zweck im Recht, ii. 225.

It is undoubtedly true that no mode of conduct is exclusively self-

regarding. No man is an entirely isolated being, hence anything
which immediately affects a person’s own welfare affects at the
same time, in some degree, the welfare of other individuals. It is
also true that the moral ideas concerning such conduct as is called
self-regarding are more or less influenced by considerations as to its
bearing upon others. But this is certainly not the only factor which
determines the judgment passed on it. In the education of children
various modes of self-regarding conduct are strenuously insisted
upon by parents and teachers. What they censure or punish is
regarded as wrong, what they praise or reward is regarded as good;
for, as we have noticed above, men have a tendency to sympathise
with the retributive emotions of persons for whom they feel regard.3
Moreover, as in the case of suicide,4 so also in other instances of
self-inflicted harm, the injury committed may excite sympathetic
resentment towards the agent, although the victim of it is his own
self. Disinterested likes or dislikes often give rise to moral approval
or disapproval of conduct which is essentially self-regarding.5 It has
also been argued that no man has a right to trifle with his own well-
being even where other persons interests are not visibly affected by
it, for the reason that he is not entitled wantonly to waste “what is
not at his unconditional disposal.”6 And in various other ways—as will
be seen directly—religious, as well as magical, ideas have influenced
moral opinions relating to self-regarding conduct. But at the same
time it is not difficult to see why self-regarding duties and virtues
only occupy a subordinate place in our moral consciousness. The
influence they exercise upon other persons’ welfare is generally too
remote to attract much attention. In education there is no need to
emphasise any other self-regarding duties and virtues but those
which, for the sake of the individual’s general welfare, require some
sacrifice of his immediate comfort or happiness. The compassion
which we are apt to feel for the victim of an injury is naturally
lessened by the fact that it is self-inflicted. And, on the other hand,
indignation against the offender is disarmed by pity, imprudence
commonly carrying its own punishment along with it.7
3 Supra, i. 114 sq.

4 Supra, ii. 262.

5 Cf. supra, i. 116 sq.

6 Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory, ii. 126.

7 Cf. Butler, op. cit. p. 339 sq.; Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the
Active and Moral Powers of Man, ii. 346 sq.

Being so little noticed by custom and public opinion, and still less
by law, most self-regarding duties hardly admit of a detailed
treatment. In a general way it may be said that progress in
intellectual culture has, in some respects, been favourable to their
evolution; Darwin even maintains that, with a few exceptions, self-
regarding virtues are not esteemed by savages.8 The less developed
the intellect, the less apt it is to recognise the remoter consequences
of men’s behaviour; hence more reflection than that exercised by the
savage may be needed to see that modes of conduct which
immediately concern a person’s own welfare at the same time affect
the well-being of his neighbours or the whole community of which
he is a member. So also, owing to his want of foresight, the savage
would often fail to notice how important it may be to subject one’s
self to some temporary deprivation or discomfort in order to attain
greater happiness in the future. We have noticed above that many
savages hardly ever correct their children,9 and this means that one
of the chief sources from which the notions of self-regarding duties
spring is almost absent among them. But on the other hand it must
also be remembered that disinterested antipathies, another cause of
such notions, exercise more influence upon the unreflecting than
upon the reflecting moral consciousness, and that many magical and
religious ideas which at the lower stages of civilisation give rise to
duties of a self-regarding character are no longer held by people
more advanced in culture.
8 Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 118 sq.

9 Supra, i. 513 sq.

These general statements referring to the nature and origin of

self-regarding duties and virtues I shall now illustrate by a short
survey of moral ideas concerning some representative modes of self-
regarding conduct:—industry and rest; temperance, fasting, and
abstinence from certain kinds of food and drink; cleanliness and
uncleanliness; and ascetic practices generally.

Man is naturally inclined to idleness, not because he is averse from

muscular activity as such, but because he dislikes the monotony of
regular labour and the mental exertion it implies.10 In general he is
induced to work only by some special motive which makes him think
the trouble worth his while. Among savages, who have little care for
the morrow,11 who have few comforts of life to provide for, and
whose property is often of such a kind as to prevent any great
accumulation of it, almost the sole inducement to industry is either
necessity or compulsion. Men are lazy or industrious according as
the necessaries of life are easy or difficult to procure, and they
prefer being idle if they can compel other persons to work for them
as their servants or slaves.
10 Cf. Ferrero, ‘Les formes primitives du travail,’ in Revue
scientifique, ser. iv. vol. v. 331 sqq.

11 Buecher, Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft, p. 21 sqq.

 Australian natives “can exert themselves vigorously when hunting
or fishing or fighting or dancing, or at any time when there is a
prospect of an immediate reward; but prolonged labour with the
object of securing ultimate gain is distasteful to them.”12 With
reference to the Polynesians Mr. Hale observes that in those islands
which are situated nearest the equator, where the heat with little or
no aid from human labour calls into existence fruits serving to
support human life, the inhabitants are an indolent and listless race;
whilst “a severer clime and ruder soil are favourable to industry,
foresight, and a hardy temperament. These opposite effects are
manifested in the Samoans, Nukahivans, and Tahitians, on the one
side, and the Sandwich Islanders and New Zealanders on the
other.”13 Mr. Yate likewise contrasts the industry of the Maoris with
the proverbial idleness of the Tonga Islanders: the former “are
obliged to work, if they would eat,” whereas “in the luxurious climate
of the Friendly Islands, there is scarcely any need of labour, to
obtain the necessaries, and even many of the luxuries, of life.”14 The
Malays are described as fond of a life of slothful ease, because
“persevering toil is unnecessary, or would bring them no additional
enjoyments.”15 The natives of Sumatra, says Marsden, “are careless
and improvident of the future, because their wants are few; for
though poor they are not necessitous, nature supplying, with
extraordinary facility, whatever she has made requisite for their
existence.”16 The Toda of the Neilgherry Hills will not “work one iota
more than circumstances compel him to do”;17 and indolence seems
to be a characteristic of most peoples of India,18 though there are
exceptions to the rule.19 Burckhardt observes that it is not the
southern sun, as Montesquieu imagined, but the luxuriance of the
southern soil and the abundance of provisions that relax the
exertions of the inhabitants and cause apathy:—“By the fertility of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India, which yield their produce almost
spontaneously, the people are lulled into indolence; while in
neighbouring countries, of a temperature equally warm, as among
the mountains of Yemen and Syria, where hard labour is necessary
to ensure a good harvest, we find a race as superior in industry to
the former as the inhabitants of Northern Europe are to those of
Spain or Italy.”20 Indolence is a common,21 though not universal,22
trait of the African character. Of the Negroes on the Gold Coast
Bosman says that “nothing but the utmost necessity can force them
to labour.”23 The Waganda are represented as excessively indolent,
in consequence of the ease with which they can obtain all the
necessaries of life.24 Of the Namaquas we are told that “they may be
seen basking in the sun for days together, in listless inactivity,
frequently almost perishing from thirst or hunger, when with very
little exertion they may have it in their power to satisfy the cravings
of nature. If urged to work, they have been heard to say: ‘Why
should we resemble the worms of the ground?’”25 Most of the
American Indians are said to have a slothful disposition, because
they can procure a livelihood with but little labour.26 But the case is
different with the Greenlanders and other Eskimo, who have to
struggle hard for their existence.27
12 Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 29 sq. See also ibid.
ii. 248; Collins, English Colony in New South Wales, i. 601; Fison
and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 259 sq.

13 Hale, U.S. Exploring Expedition. Vol. VI. Ethnography and

Philology, p. 17. See also Williams, Missionary Enterprises in the
South Sea Islands, p. 534 (Samoans); Ellis, Polynesian
Researches, i. 130 sq. (Tahitians); Brenchley, Cruise of H.M.S.
Curaçoa among the South Sea Islands, p. 58 (natives of Tutuila);
Melville, Typee, p. 287 (some Marquesas Islanders); Anderson,
Notes of Travel in Fiji and New Caledonia, p. 236 (New
Caledonians); Penny, Ten Years in Melanesia, p. 74 (Solomon
Islanders).

14 Yate, Account of New Zealand, p. 105 sq.

15 McNair, Perak and the Malays, p. 201. Bock, Head-Hunters of

Borneo, p. 275. Raffles, History of Java, i. 251. St. John, Life in
the Forests of the Far East, ii. 323.

16 Marsden, History of Sumatra, p. 209. See also Glimpses of the

Eastern Archipelago, pp. 76, 87 (Bataks).
 17 Marshall, A Phrenologist amongst the Todas, p. 88. See also
ibid. p. 86; Shortt, ‘Hill Tribes of the Neilgherries,’ in Trans. Ethn.
Soc. N.S. vii. 241; Mantegazza, ‘Studii sull’ etnologia dell’ India,’ in
Archivio per l’antropologia e la etnologia, xiii. 406.

18 Cooper, Mishmee Hills, p. 100 (Assamese). Tickell, ‘Memoir on

the Hodésum,’ in Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, ix. 808 (Hos). Dalton,
Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 57 (Jyntias and Kasias), 101 (Lepchas).
Burton, Sindh, p. 284. Moorcroft and Trebeck, Travels in the
Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan, i. 321 (Ladakhis). Caldwell,
Tinnevelly Shanars, p. 58.

19 Man, Sonthalia, p. 19. Hodgson, Miscellaneous Essays, i. 152

(Bódo and Dhimáls). Macpherson, Memorials of Service in India,
p. 81 (Kandhs).

20 Burckhardt, Arabic Proverbs, p. 219.

21 Beltrame, Il Sénnaar, i. 166. Tuckey, Expedition to Explore the

River Zaire, p. 369. Johnston, The River Congo, p. 402 (Bakongo).
Casati, Ten Years in Equatoria, i. 85 (Abaka Negroes). Wilson and
Felkin, Uganda, ii. 310 (Gowane people). Burton, Zanzibar, ii. 96
(Wanika). Bonfanti, ‘L’incivilimento dei negri nell’ Africa
intertropicale,’ in Archivio per l’antropologia e la etnologia, xv. 133
(Bantu). Andersson, Lake Ngami, p. 231 (Herero). Magyar, Reisen
in Süd-Afrika, p. 290 (Kimbunda). Kropf, Das Volk der Xosa-
Kaffern, p. 89. Tyler, Forty Years among the Zulus, p. 194. Ellis,
History of Madagascar, i. 140. Shaw, ‘Betsileo Country and
People,’ in Antananarivo Annual, iii. 81.

22 Baker, Ismailïa, p. 56 (Shilluk). Baumann, Usambara, p. 244

(Wapare). Bosman, Description of the Coast of Guinea, p. 318
(Negroes of Fida). Andersson, Notes on Travel in South Africa, p.
235 (Ovambo). See also infra, p. 272.

23 Bosman, op. cit. p. 101.

24 Wilson and Felkin, op. cit. i. 225.

 25 Andersson, Lake Ngami, p. 335. See also Kolben, Present
State of the Cape of Good-Hope, i. 46, 324; Barrow, Travels into
the Interior of Southern Africa, i. 152; Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen
Süd-Afrika’s, p. 324 (Hottentots).

26 Bridges, ‘Manners and Customs of the Firelanders,’ in A Voice

for South America, xiii. 203 (Fuegians). Dobrizhoffer, Account of
the Abipones, ii. 151; but he praises the Abiponian women for
their unwearied industry (ibid. ii. 151 sq.). Brett, Indian Tribes of
Guiana, p. 343; Kirke, Twenty-five Years in British Guiana, p. 150.
Domenech, Seven Years’ Residence in the Great Deserts of North
America, ii. 190. Burton, City of the Saints, p. 126 (Sioux).
Harmon, Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, p.
285 (Tacullies). Meares, Voyages to the North-West Coast of
America, p. 265 (Nootkas).

27 Cranz, History of Greenland, i. 126. Armstrong, Narrative of

the Discovery of the North-West Passage, p. 196 (Western
Eskimo).

We have seen that savages consider it a duty for a married man to

support his family,28 and this in most cases implies that he is under
an obligation to do a certain amount of work. We have also seen
that the various occupations of life are divided between the sexes
according to rules fixed by custom,29 and this means that absolute
idleness is not generally tolerated in either men or women, though
the drudgeries of life are often imposed upon the latter. Of some
uncivilised peoples we are directly told that they enjoin work as a
duty or regard industry as a virtue. The Greenlanders esteem
addiction to labour as the chief of virtues and believe that the
industrious man will have a very happy existence after death.30 The
Atkha Aleuts prohibited laziness.31 Mr. Batchelor relates an Ainu fable
which encourages diligence and discourages idleness in young
people.32 The Karens of Burma have a traditional precept which
runs, “Be not idle, but labour diligently, that you may not become
slaves.”33 The Maoris say, “Let industry be rewarded, lest idleness
gets the advantage.”34 The Malagasy likewise inculcate industry in
many of their proverbs.35 The Basutos have a saying that
“perseverance always triumphs.”36 Among the Bachapins, a
Bechuana tribe conspicuous for its activity, “a man’s merit is
estimated principally by his industry, and the words múnŏnă
usináachă (an industrious man) are an expression of high
approbation and praise; while he who is seldom seen to hunt, to
prepare skins for clothing, or to sew koboes, is accounted a
worthless and disgraceful member of society.”37 Among the Beni
M’zab in the Sahara—an industrious people inhabiting a sterile
country—boys are already at the age of six years compelled by law
to begin to work, either in driving a camel or ass, or in drawing
water for the gardens.38 We may expect to find industry especially
insisted upon by uncivilised peoples who are habitually addicted to
it, partly because it is a necessity among them, partly owing to the
influence of habit.
28 Supra, i. 526 sqq.

29 Supra, i. 634 sqq.

30 Cranz, op. cit. i. 186.

31 Yakof, quoted by Petroff, Report on Alaska, p. 158.

32 Batchelor, Ainu of Japan, p. 111.

33 Smeaton, Loyal Karens of Burma, p. 255.

34 Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, p. 293. See also Johnston, Maoria, p.

43.

35 Clemes, ‘Malagasy Proverbs,’ in Antananarivo Annual, iv. 29.

36 Casalis, Basutos, p. 310.

37 Burchell, Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, ii. 557.

38 Tristram, The Great Sahara, p. 207 sq.

But instead of being regarded as a duty, industrial activity is not

infrequently looked down upon as disreputable for a free man. This
is especially the case among warlike nations, nomadic tribes, and
peoples who have many slaves. In Uganda, for instance, the
prevalence of slavery “causes all manual labour to be looked upon as
derogatory to the dignity of a free man.”39 The Masai40 and
Matabele41 consider that the only occupation which becomes a man
is warfare. The Arabs of the desert hold labour humiliating to
anybody but a slave.42 Speaking of the Turkomans, Vámbéry
observes that “in his domestic circle, the nomad presents us a
picture of the most absolute indolence. In his eyes it is the greatest
shame for a man to apply his hand to any domestic occupation.”43
The Chippewas “have ever looked upon agricultural and mechanical
labours as degrading,” and “have regarded the use of the bow and
arrow, the war-club and spear, as the noblest employments of
man.”44 Among the Iroquois “the warrior despised the toil of
husbandry, and held all labour beneath him.”45 Though an
industrious race, the Maoris considered it more honourable, as well
as more desirable, to acquire property by war and plunder than by
labour.46 Among the Line Islanders it is undignified for a landholder
to do work of any kind, except to make weapons, hence he employs
persons of the lower class to work for him.47 In Nukahiva the people
of distinction “suffer the nails on the fingers to grow very long, that
it may be evident they are not accustomed to hard labour.”48 This
contempt for industrial activity is easy to explain. A man who earns
his livelihood by labour is considered to be lacking in those qualities
which are alone admired—courage and strength;—or work is
associated with the idea of servile subjection. It is also universally
held degrading for a man to engage in any occupation which belongs
to the women.49 Thus among hunting and pastoral peoples it would
be quite out of place for him to supply the household with vegetable
food.50 On the other hand, when agriculture became an
indispensable means to maintenance of life it at the same time
became respectable. But trade was scorned, probably, as Mr.
Spencer suggests, because it was carried on chiefly by unsettled
persons, who were detached, untrustworthy members of a
community in which most men had fixed positions.51 The Kandhs
“consider it beneath their dignity to barter or traffic, and …. regard
as base and plebeian all who are not either warriors or tillers of the
soil.”52 The Javans “have a contempt for trade, and those of higher
rank esteem it disgraceful to be engaged in it; but the common
people are ever ready to engage in the labours of agriculture, and
the chiefs to honour and encourage agricultural industry.”53
39 Wilson and Felkin, op. cit. i. 186.

40 Merker, Die Masai, p. 117.

41 Holub, ‘Die Ma-Atabele,’ in Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. xxv. 198.

42 Burton, Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah & Meccah, ii. 10.

43 Vámbéry, Travels in Central Asia, p. 320.

44 Schoolcraft, Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge, v. 150.

45 Morgan, League of the Iroquois, p. 329.

46 Travers, ‘Life and Times of Te Rauparaha,’ in Trans. New

Zealand Inst. v. 29.

47 Tutuila, ‘Line Islanders,’ in Jour. Polynesian Soc. i. 266.

48 von Langsdorf, Voyages and Travels, i. 174.

49 Supra, i. 636 sq.

50 Supra, i. 634.

51 Spencer, Principles of Ethics, i. 429.

52 Campbell, Wild Tribes of Khondistan, p. 50.

53 Raffles, op. cit. i. 246 sq.

Progress in civilisation implies an increase of industry. Both the

necessities and the comforts of life grow more numerous; hence
more labour is required to provide for them, and at the same time
there is more inducement to accumulate wealth. The advantages,
both private and public, accruing from diligence are more clearly
recognised, and the government, in particular, is anxious that the
people should work so as to be able to pay their taxes. All this leads
to condemnation of idleness and approbation of industry; and the
influence of habit must operate in the same direction among a
nation whose industrial propensities have been the cause of its
civilisation. But in the archaic State war is still regarded as a nobler
occupation than labour; and whilst agriculture is held in honour,
trade and handicraft are frequently despised.
In the kingdom of the Peruvian Incas there was a law that no one
should be idle. “Children of five years old were employed at very
light work, suitable to their age. Even the blind and lame, if they had
no other infirmity, were provided with certain kinds of work. The rest
of the people, while they were healthy, were occupied each at his
own labour, and it was a most infamous and degrading thing among
these people to be chastised in public for idleness.”54 If any of them
was slothful, or slept in the day, he was whipped or had to carry the
stone.55 The reason for these measures was that the whole duty of
defraying the expenses of the government belonged to the people,
and that, without money and with little property, they paid their
taxes in labour; hence to be idle was, in a manner, to rob the
exchequer.56
54 Blas Valera, quoted by Garcilasso de la Vega, First Part of the
Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, ii. 34. See also ibid. ii. 14;
Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, ii. 413.

55 Herrera, General History of the West Indies, iv. 339.

56 Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru, i. 57.

One of the characteristics of Zoroastrianism is its appreciation of

labour.57 The faithful man must be vigilant, alert, and active; sleep
itself is merely a concession to the demons, and should therefore be
kept within the limits of necessity.58 The lazy man is the most
unworthy of men, because he eats his food through impropriety and
injustice.59 And of all kinds of labour the most necessary is
husbandry.60 Man has been placed upon earth to preserve Ahura
Mazda’s good creation, and this can only be done by careful tilling of
the soil, eradication of thorns and weeds, and reclamation of the
tracks over which Angra Mainyu has spread the curse of barrenness.
Zoroaster asked, “What is the food that fills the Religion of Mazda?”
and Ahura Mazda answered, “It is sowing corn again and again, O
Spitama Zarathustra! He who sows corn sows righteousness.”61
According to Xenophon, the king of the Persians considered the art
of agriculture and that of war to be the most honourable and
necessary occupations, and paid the greatest attention to both.62 He
appointed officers to overlook the tillers of the ground, as well as to
collect tribute from them; for “those who cultivate the ground
inefficiently will neither maintain the garrisons, nor be able to pay
their tribute.”63
57 See Darmesteter, in Sacred Books of the East, iv. p. lxvii.;
Geiger, Civilization of the Eastern Irānians, i. 70; Rawlinson,
Religions of the Ancient World, p. 108; Dînâ-î Maînôg-î Khirad, ii.
29, xxxvi. 15, xxxvii. 14, &c.

58 Vendîdâd, xviii. 16.

59 Dînâ-î Maînôg-î Khirad, xxi. 27.

60 See Vendîdâd, iii. 23 sqq.

61 Ibid. iii. 30 sq.

62 Xenophon, Œconomicus, iv. 4, 8 sqq.

63 Xenophon, Œconomicus, iv. 9, 11.

In his description of ancient Egypt Herodotus tells us that one of

its kings made a law to the effect that every Egyptian should
annually declare to the governor of his district by what means he
maintained himself, and that, if he failed to do this, or did not show
that he lived by honest means, he should be punished with death.64
Whether this statement be correct or not,65 it seems certain that the
Egyptians were anxious to encourage industry.66 An ostracon which
has often been quoted contains the maxim, “Do not spare thy body
whilst thou art young, for food cometh by the arms and provisions
by the legs.”67
 64 Herodotus, ii. 177. Cf. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica,
i. 77. 5.

65 Cf. Wiedemann, Herodots zweites Buch, p. 605.

66 See Amélineau, Essai sur l’évolution des idées morales dans

l’Égypte Ancienne, p. 329.

67 Gardiner, ‘Egyptian Ethics,’ in Hastings’ Encyclopædia of

Religion and Ethics, v. 484.

A law against idleness resembling that which is reported to have

existed in Egypt was established at Athens, according to some
writers by Draco or Pisistratus,68 according to others by Solon, who
is said to have borrowed it from the Egyptians.69 Plutarch states
that, as the city was filled with persons who assembled from all parts
on account of the great security which prevailed in Attica and the
country withal was poor and barren, Solon turned the attention of
the citizens to manufactures. For this purpose he ordered that trades
should be accounted honourable, that the council of the Areopagus
should examine into every man’s means of subsisting and chastise
the idle, and that no son should be obliged to maintain his father if
the father had not taught him a trade.70 Thucydides puts the
following words in the mouth of Pericles:—“To avow poverty with us
is no disgrace; the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it. An
Athenian citizen does not neglect the State because he takes care of
his own household; and even those of us who are engaged in
business have a very fair idea of politics.”71 In Xenophon’s
‘Memorabilia’ Socrates recommends industry as a means of
supporting life, of maintaining the health and strength of the body,
of promoting temperance and honesty.72 According to Plato idleness
is the mother of wantonness, whereas by labour the aliment of
passion is diverted into other parts of the body.73 Agriculture was
highly praised. It is the best of all the occupations and arts by which
men procure the means of living.74 Where it flourishes all other
pursuits are in full vigour, but when the ground is allowed to lie
barren other occupations are almost stopped.75 It is an exercise for
the body, and strengthens it for discharging the duties that become
a man of honourable birth.76 It requires people to accustom
themselves to endure the colds of winter and the heats of summer.77
It renders them fit for running, throwing, leaping.78 It gives them
the greatest gratification for their labour, it is the most attractive of
all employments.79 It receives strangers with the richest
hospitality.80 It offers the most pleasing first-fruits to the gods, and
the richest banquets on festival days.81 It teaches men justice, for it
is those who treat the earth best that she recompenses with the
most numerous benefits.82 It instructs people to assist one another,
for it cannot be conducted without the aid of other men.83 It does
not give such constant occupation to a person’s mind as to prevent
him from attending to the interests of his friends or his native land.84
The possession of an estate stimulates men to defend their country
in arms.85 In short, agriculture renders citizens most useful, most
virtuous, and best affected towards the commonwealth.86
68 Pollux, Onomasticum, viii. 42. Diogenes Laertius, Vitæ
philosophorum, i. 55. Plutarch, Solon, xxxi. 6.

69 Herodotus, ii. 177. Diodorus Siculus, i. 77. 5.

70 Plutarch, Solon, xxii. 1, 3 sq.

71 Thucydides, Historia belli Peloponnesiaci, ii. 40. 1 sq.

72 Xenophon, Memorabilia, ii. 7. 7 sq.

73 Plato, Leges, viii. 835, 841.

74 Xenophon, Œconomicus, vi. 8.

75 Ibid. v. 17.

76 Ibid. v. 1; vi. 9.

77 Ibid. v. 4.

78 Ibid. v. 8.

79 Ibid. v. 8, 11.

80 Ibid. v. 8.
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