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 Popular culture and working-class taste
in Britain, 1930–39

James_PopCult_Final.indd 1 16/03/2010 16:43

 STUDIES IN
POPULAR
CULTURE
General editor: Professor Jeffrey Richards
Recently published
Healthy living in the Alps:
the origins of winter tourism in Switzerland, 1860–1914
Susan Barton
Leisure, citizenship and working-class men in Britain, 1850–1945
Brad Beaven
British railway enthusiasm
Ian Carter
Darts in England, 1900–39: a social history
Patrick Chaplin
History on British television: constructing nation,
nationality and collective memory
Robert Dillon
Songs of protest, songs of love: popular ballads
in eighteenth-century Britain
Robin Ganev
The BBC and national identity in Britain, 1922–53
Thomas Hajkowski
From silent screen to multi-screen:
a history of cinema exhibition in Britain since 1896
Stuart Hanson
Juke box Britain: Americanisation and youth culture, 1945–60
Adrian Horn

James_PopCult_Final.indd 2 16/03/2010 16:43

 Popular culture and
working-class taste in Britain,
1930–39
A round of cheap diversions?

R O B E RT J A M E S

Manchester University Press

Manchester and New York
distributed exclusively in the USA by Palgrave Macmillan

James_PopCult_Final.indd 3 16/03/2010 16:43

 Copyright © Robert James 2010
The right of Robert James to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Published by Manchester University Press

Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9NR, UK
and Room 400, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA
www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk

Distributed exclusively in the USA by

Palgrave Macmillan, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York,
NY 10010, USA

Distributed exclusively in Canada by

UBC Press, University of British Columbia, 2029 West Mall,
Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z2
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

isbn 978 0 7190 8025 8 hardback

First published 2010

The publisher has no responsibility for the persistance or accuracy of URLs for external
or any third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that
any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Typeset in Adobe Garamond with Gill Sans display by

Koinonia, Manchester
Printed in Great Britain
by CPI Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire

James_PopCult_Final.indd 4 16/03/2010 16:43

 STUDIES IN
POPULAR
CULTURE
There has in recent years been an explosion of interest in culture and
cultural studies. The impetus has come from two directions and out of two
different traditions. On the one hand, cultural history has grown out of social
history to become a distinct and identifiable school of historical investigation.
On the other hand, cultural studies has grown out of English literature and
has concerned itself to a large extent with contemporary issues. Nevertheless,
there is a shared project, its aim to elucidate the meanings and values implicit
and explicit in the art, literature, learning, institutions and everyday behaviour
within a given society. Both the cultural historian and the cultural studies
scholar seek to explore the ways in which a culture is imagined, represented
and received, how it interacts with social processes, how it contributes to
individual and collective identities and world views, to stability and change, to
social, political and economic activities and programmes. This series aims to
provide an arena for the cross-fertilisation of the discipline, so that the work of
the cultural historian can take advantage of the most useful and illuminating of
the theoretical developments and the cultural studies scholars can extend the
purely historical underpinnings of their investigations. The ultimate objective
of the series is to provide a range of books which will explain in a readable
and accessible way where we are now socially and culturally and how we got
to where we are. This should enable people to be better informed, promote
an interdisciplinary approach to cultural issues and encourage deeper thought
about the issues, attitudes and institutions of popular culture.
Jeffrey Richards

James_PopCult_Final.indd 5 16/03/2010 16:43

 To my parents, Alfred and Patricia James,
for their love and support over the years.

James_PopCult_Final.indd 6 16/03/2010 16:43

 Contents

General editor’s introduction page ix

Acknowledgements xi
Introduction 1
1 ‘The people’s amusement’: the growth in cinema-going and
reading habits 13
2 ‘Fouling civilisation’?: official attitudes towards popular film
and literature 39
3 Trade attitudes towards audience taste 57
4 ‘What made you put that rubbish on?’: national trends in film
popularity 81
5 ‘The appearance is an added incentive’: national trends in
literature popularity 106
6 ‘A very profitable enterprise’: South Wales Miners’ Institutes 124
7 ‘Gunmen, rustlers and a damsel in distress’: working-class tastes
in Derby 159
8 ‘The home of the brave’?: working-class tastes in Portsmouth 177
9 Popular film and literature: textual analyses 191
Conclusion: ‘giving the public what it wants’ 203
Appendices
I: Broader patterns of film popularity 209
II: Sidney Bernstein questionnaires, 1932 and 1934:
pre-report material 234
III: Patterns of literature popularity 244
Select bibliography 250
Index 257

James_PopCult_Final.indd 7 16/03/2010 16:43

James_PopCult_Final.indd 8 16/03/2010 16:43
 General editor’s introduction

In this thoughtful, well-researched and ground-breaking book, Robert James

advances a revisionist interpretation of working-class taste in 1930s Britain. In
doing so, he seeks to merge the often antipathetic structuralist and culturalist
approaches to the subject in an analysis of both text and context, production
and consumption. He examines the cultural assumptions and attitudes of the
largely middle-class authorities and arbiters of taste, and compares them with
the evidence of popular choice, derived from a range of important primary
sources such as Mass-Observation, the Bernstein Questionnaires and the
Miners’ Institute ledgers. He carefully establishes the economic, social and
ideological contexts by analysing the choices and motivations of the producers
and consumers of popular culture and the strategies of advertising and promo-
tion. Having established the context, he undertakes a comparative study of
Portsmouth, Derby and South Wales, chosen for their geographical spread
and socio-economic differences, to assess in depth and detail the nature of
working-class taste. A unique feature of the book is his examination of cinema-
going and reading habits side by side. These two pastimes have normally been
studied separately. His conclusion, contrary to the conventional wisdom, that
the working-class consumer was an active and not a passive agent and that
there were regional variations in taste rather than a single uniform national
working-class taste, is consistent and persuasive. He is careful however not to
reject the idea that some tastes transcended region and locality and he fascinat-
ingly establishes that the most popular author in the tuppenny libraries and
the most filmed author of the decade was one and the same – Edgar Wallace.
This confident, well-informed and subtly argued study makes a significant
contribution to our understanding of inter-war popular culture.

James_PopCult_Final.indd 9 16/03/2010 16:43

James_PopCult_Final.indd 10 16/03/2010 16:43
 Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to thank Jeffrey Richards for his kind and encour-
aging comments during the various stages of this project. Jeffrey was external
examiner for my PhD thesis, on which this study is based, and kindly suggested
that it should be turned into a book.
I am hugely indebted to Sue Harper. She has been a wonderful mentor over
the past years, running a critical eye over, firstly, my PhD thesis, for which
she was Director of Studies, and latterly, various drafts of this book. Without
her guidance and support this study would not have seen the light of day.
Her gentle coaching, constructive criticism and eternal optimism have made
working on it a real pleasure. I should also like to thank Brad Beaven, who
has also provided much welcome advice, especially during the latter stages of
this project.
I am extremely grateful for the financial assistance received from the Art
and Humanities Research Council which has allowed me to undertake this
research.
Gratitude must also go to the numerous staff at the archives I have visited
during my research. Their assistance has been most welcome. Especial thanks
go to Elisabeth Bennett, archivist at the South Wales Coalfield Collection,
University of Wales, Swansea; John Dallison and Trish Kenny at Derby Local
Studies Centre; and Lizzie Ennion and Elisabeth Kingston at Peterborough
Archives Service. All were helpful beyond the call of duty. Numerous archi-
vists at Portsmouth Norrish Central Library and Portsmouth Records Office
also deserve gratitude for their invaluable assistance. Janet Moat and Julia Bell
at Special Collections, BFI, London were also adept at digging out less well-
known archival material. I would also like to thank the Trustees of the Mass-
Observation Archive, University of Sussex for the use of their material, and
Dorothy Sheridan for her assistance in finding what I needed. I would also like

James_PopCult_Final.indd 11 16/03/2010 16:43

 xii Acknowledgements

to thank Emma Brennan, editor at Manchester University Press, the produc-

tion staff at MUP, and the anonymous reader, for their hard work in putting
this project together.
Various academics have also offered advice during the course of writing this
book. I have been fortunate to gain valuable guidance from scholars at the Film
History seminars, held at the Institute of Historical Research and convened by
Dr Mark Glancy. Their willingness to share their wealth of knowledge in 1930s
film culture has been very gratefully received. Colleagues in the History and
Film Studies departments at the University of Portsmouth have also been very
generous with their knowledge, especially Justin Smith. Thank you. Thanks
also to my students at Portsmouth – past and present – for making me reflect
on the value and relevance of my subject.
A special note of thanks go to my circle of friends, especially Colin and
Sarah Walker, Emma Mooney and Maureen Wright, but also my dog-walking
companions – Mike and Sue Kenward, Lynne Stagg and Pete Harding – for
putting up with my discussions on 1930s working-class taste as if there was not
another subject in the world that mattered. On that note, thanks also go to my
family, Mum, Dad, Linda, Jeanette and Colin. Your love and support over the
years have been very much appreciated. A special note of appreciation should
be recorded for David and Irene Palmer, two truly inspirational teachers who
gave me the encouragement to change profession. Thanks for the ‘push’.
Finally, I would like to say thank you to my wife, Alison, for her love,
support, patience and unflagging encouragement.

James_PopCult_Final.indd 12 16/03/2010 16:43

 Introduction

‘Giving the Public what it wants’. By a process not difficult to imagine and
easily demonstrable, this has come to mean providing fiction that requires
the least effort to read and will set the reader up with a comfortable state
1
of mind.
The cinematograph film is today one of the most widely used means for the
amusement of the public at large. It is also undoubtedly a most important factor
in the education of all classes of the community, in the spread of national culture
and in presenting ideas and customs to the world. Its potentialities moreover
in shaping the ideas of the very large numbers to whom it appeals are almost
2
­unlimited. The propaganda value of film cannot be over-emphasised.

T hese quotes reveal much about British society’s attitudes towards popular
leisure in the 1930s. The first, written by Q.D. Leavis, reveals how socie-
ty’s leisure activities were believed to be contributing to a more passive, less
socially aware population. The second, taken from a Government-sponsored
report of the Committee on Cinematograph Films, demonstrates that some
contemporaries viewed leisure as a valuable propaganda medium. Something
was clearly afoot, and the authors of these remarks were attempting to deal
with it. Interestingly, these remarks were made with little or no attention
paid to the consumers themselves. More to the point, consumers are being
identified as passive observers. They are being denied agency. This is typical
of many investigations into popular leisure in the period. When scrutinising
society’s leisure activities, even the most vociferous critics did so very much
like a stone skipping across deep water. They failed to penetrate the surface
and thus did not gain any real understanding of what leisure actually meant
to those consuming it.
This book explores the social and cultural roles of cinema-going and reading
in the lives of the working classes in 1930s Britain. It aims to establish what
types of material they consumed, and, more specifically, why they consumed  it.

James_PopCult_Final.indd 1 16/03/2010 16:43

 2 Popular culture and working-class taste in Britain

The reasons behind these choices are three-fold. Firstly, social investigators
were particularly interested in the leisure activities of the working classes in
the 1930s; it was this social group that caused most concern. Secondly, cinema-
going and reading, as two of the most popular leisure pastimes among working-
class consumers, came under greatest scrutiny. Thirdly, and finally, historians,
very much like contemporaries of the period, have been rather reluctant to
analyse the meaning of popular leisure for those consuming it. They, too, have
frequently identified working-class consumers as passive observers with no
individual agency. There is, then, a gap in the literature that needs redressing,
and it is one which, once filled, will help to improve our understanding of the
role of popular leisure in a period during which British society’s engagement
with it was vital
There was, in fact, a notable growth in cinema-going and reading habits in
the 1930s, especially within working-class communities. This rapid growth,
coupled with heightened social tensions, persuaded society’s cultural elites to
look more closely at them; they were eager to understand the effects these
leisure activities were having on society. Their responses were generally
negative. Cinema-going, as a relatively new cultural phenomenon, bore the
brunt of their criticism, but reading habits were also heavily criticised.
This interest in the effects of leisure on the working classes was not a new
phenomenon. From the mid-nineteenth century onwards social commenta-
tors, such as Charles Booth and Henry Mayhew, compiled studies evaluating
the relationship between leisure, labour and the working class.3 For them,
much of what was wrong in society could be blamed on the type of leisure
activity in which people partook. As a result of these investigations, many
middle-class philanthropists sought to influence the working classes’ choice
of leisure activity. Attempts were made to ‘improve’ working-class society
through ‘rational recreation’; ‘educational’ forms of entertainment were
promoted vigorously.
The majority of investigations performed during the 1930s operated along
similar lines. The writings of middle-class observers George Orwell, J.B.
Priestley and Seebohm B. Rowntree, along with the work of the Mass-Obser-
vation organisation and the Scrutiny group, are cases in point. Like Booth and
Mayhew, these observers and cultural critics sought to investigate and record
various aspects of working-class life. Assorted approaches were taken, but each
researcher had similar aims: to gain a better understanding of society at ‘grass-
roots’ level. The primary motivation behind these investigations was dissatis-
faction with the working classes’ apparent lack of interest in politics. There

James_PopCult_Final.indd 2 16/03/2010 16:43

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THE END
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