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Lamy Jean-Baptiste

Ontologies with Python

Programming OWL 2.0 Ontologies with Python and
Owlready2
1st ed.
Lamy Jean-Baptiste
Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, LIMICS, Sorbonne Université INSERM,
UMR 1142, Bobigny, France

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s
product page, located at www.​apress.​com/​978-1-4842-6551-2. For
more detailed information, please visit http://​www.​apress.​com/​
source-code.

ISBN 978-1-4842-6551-2 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-6552-9

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6552-9

© Lamy Jean-Baptiste 2021

Standard Apress

Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather
than use a trademark symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Moushin Gaouar, Appoh Kouame, and Adrien
Basse for being among the first to test Owlready, as well as my friends
and/or colleagues Rosy Tsopra, Gaoussou Camara, Antoine Gellman,
Patricia Nadjar, Antoine Saab, David Perlmutter, Arnaud Rosier, Karima
Sedki, Fadi Badra, Jordon Ritchie, Brandon Welch, Lina Soualmia, and
Marie-Christine Jaulent for discussions on ontologies, long or short, and
sometimes even before the existence of Owlready.
I also thank the ANSM (Agence Nationale de Sécurité du
Médicament et des produits de santé, French drug agency) for having
funded the VIIIP project (Integrated Visualization of Information on
Therapeutic Innovation), during which Owlready was born (at the time
under the name “Ontopy”).
Finally, I thank all members of the Owlready forum on Nabble (
http://owlready.8326.n8.nabble.com/ ) for their requests
and their advice, which greatly influenced the content of this book.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Introduction
1.​1 Who is this book for?​
1.​2 Why ontologies?​
1.​3 Why Python?​
1.​4 Why Owlready?​
1.​5 Book outline
1.​6 Summary
Chapter 2:​The Python language:​Adopt a snake!
2.​1 Installing Python
2.​2 Starting Python
2.​3 Syntax
2.​3.​1 Comments
2.​3.​2 Writing on screen
2.​3.​3 Help
2.​3.​4 Variables
2.​3.​5 Indentation
2.​4 Main datatypes
2.4.1 Integer (int) and floating-point numbers (float)
2.4.2 Booleans (bool)
2.4.3 Character strings (str)
2.4.4 Lists (list)
2.4.5 Tuples (tuple)
2.4.6 Dictionaries (dict and defaultdict)
2.4.7 Sets (set)
 2.4.8 Files (open)
2.​4.​9 Conversion between datatypes
2.5 Conditions (if)
2.6 Loops (for)
2.​7 Generators
2.8 Functions (def)
2.9 Classes (class)
2.​9.​1 Classes and instances
2.​9.​2 Inheritance
2.​9.​3 Special method names
2.​9.​4 Functions and operators for object-oriented
programming
2.​10 Python modules
2.​10.​1 Importing a module
2.​10.​2 Installing additional modules
2.​11 Installing Owlready2
2.​11.​1 Installing Owlready2 from terminal
2.​11.​2 Installing Owlready2 from IDLE or Spyder (or any
Python shell)
2.​11.​3 Manual installation of Owlready2
2.​12 Summary
Chapter 3:​OWL ontologies
3.​1 An ontology… what does it look like?​
3.​2 Creating ontologies manually with the Protégé editor
3.​3 Example:​An ontology of bacteria
3.​4 Creating a new ontology
 3.​4.​1 Classes
3.​4.​2 Disjoints
3.​4.​3 Partitions
3.​4.​4 Data properties
3.​4.​5 Object properties
3.​4.​6 Restrictions
3.​4.​7 Union, intersection, and complement
3.​4.​8 Definitions (equivalent-to relations)
3.​4.​9 Individuals
3.​4.​10 Other constructs
3.​5 Automatic reasoning
3.​6 Modeling exercises
3.​7 Summary
Chapter 4:​Accessing ontologies in Python
4.​1 Importing Owlready
4.​2 Loading an ontology
4.​3 Imported ontologies
4.​4 Listing the content of the ontology
4.​5 Accessing entities
4.​5.​1 Individuals
4.​5.​2 Relations
4.​5.​3 Classes
4.​5.​4 Existential restrictions
4.​5.​5 Properties
4.​6 Searching for entities
4.​7 Huge ontologies and disk cache
 4.​8 Namespaces
4.​9 Modifying entity rendering as text
4.​10 Local directory of ontologies
4.​11 Reloading an ontology in the quadstore
4.​12 Example:​creating a dynamic website from an ontology
4.​13 Summary
Chapter 5:​Creating and modifying ontologies in Python
5.​1 Creating an empty ontology
5.​2 Creating classes
5.​2.​1 Creating classes dynamically
5.​3 Creating properties
5.​4 Creating individuals
5.​5 Modifying entities:​relations and existential restrictions
5.​6 Creating entities within a namespace
5.​7 Renaming entities (refactoring)
5.​8 Multiple definitions and forward declarations
5.​9 Destroying entities
5.​10 Destroying an ontology
5.​11 Saving an ontology
5.​12 Importing ontologies
5.​13 Synchronization
5.​14 Example:​populating an ontology from a CSV file
5.​14.​1 Populating with individuals
5.​14.​2 Populating with classes
5.​15 Summary
Chapter 6:​Constructs, restrictions, and class properties
 6.​1 Creating constructs
6.​2 Accessing construct parameters
6.​3 Restrictions as class properties
6.​4 Defined classes
6.​5 Example:​creating the ontology of bacteria in Python
6.​6 Example:​populating an ontology with defined classes
6.​6.​1 Populating using class properties
6.​6.​2 Populating using constructs
6.​7 Summary
Chapter 7:​Automatic reasoning
7.​1 Disjoints
7.​2 Reasoning with the Open-World assumption
7.​3 Reasoning in a closed world or in a local closed world
7.​4 Inconsistent classes and inconsistent ontologies
7.​5 Restriction and reasoning on numbers and strings
7.​6 SWRL rules
7.​6.​1 SWRL syntax
7.​6.​2 SWRL rules with Protégé
7.​6.​3 SWRL rules with Owlready
7.​6.​4 Advantages and limits of SWRL rules
7.​7 Example:​an ontology-based decision support system
7.​8 Summary
Chapter 8:​Annotations, multilingual texts, and full-text search
8.​1 Annotating entities
8.​2 Multilingual texts
8.​3 Annotating constructs
 8.​4 Annotating properties and relations
8.​5 Creating new annotation classes
8.​6 Ontology metadata
8.​7 Full-text search
8.​8 Example:​Using DBpedia in Python
8.​8.​1 Loading DBpedia
8.​8.​2 A search engine for DBpedia
8.​9 Summary
Chapter 9:​Using medical terminologies with PyMedTermino and
UMLS
9.​1 UMLS
9.​2 Importing terminologies from UMLS
9.​3 Loading terminologies after initial importation
9.​4 Using ICD10
9.​5 Using SNOMED CT
9.​6 Using UMLS unified concepts (CUI)
9.​7 Mapping between terminologies
9.​8 Manipulating sets of concepts
9.​9 Importing all terminologies in UMLS
9.​10 Example:​Linking the ontology of bacteria with UMLS
9.​11 Example:​A multi-terminology browser
9.​12 Summary
Chapter 10:​Mixing Python and OWL
10.​1 Adding Python methods to OWL classes
10.​2 Associating a Python module to an ontology
10.​2.​1 Manual import
 10.​2.​2 Automatic import
10.​3 Polymorphism with type inference
10.​4 Introspection
10.​5 Reading restrictions backward
10.​6 Example:​Using Gene Ontology and managing “part-of”
relations
10.​7 Example:​A “dating site” for proteins
10.​8 Summary
Chapter 11:​Working with RDF triples and worlds
11.​1 RDF triples
11.​2 Manipulating RDF triples with RDFlib
11.​2.​1 Reading RDF triples
11.​2.​2 Creating new RDF triples with RDFlib
11.​2.​3 Removing RDF triples with RDFlib
11.​3 Performing SPARQL requests
11.​3.​1 Searching with SPARQL
11.​3.​2 SPARQL prefixes
11.​3.​3 Creating RDF triples with SPARQL
11.​3.​4 Removing RDF triples with SPARQL
11.​4 Accessing RDF triples with Owlready
11.​5 Interrogating the SQLite3 database directly
11.​6 Adding support for custom datatypes
11.​7 Creating several isolated worlds
11.​8 Summary
Appendix A:​Description logics
Appendix B:​Notations for formal ontologies
Appendix C:​Reference manual
C.​1 World class
C.​2 Ontology class
C.3 Classes (ThingClass class)
C.4 Individuals (Thing class)
C.5 Properties (PropertyClass class and its descendants)
C.6 Constructs (Contruct class and its descendants)
C.​6.​1 Restriction class
C.​6.​2 Intersection (And class)
C.​6.​3 Union (Or class)
C.​6.​4 Complement (Not class)
C.​6.​5 Property inverse (Inverse class)
C.​6.​6 Individual set (OneOf class)
C.​7 SWRL rules
C.​7.​1 Variable class
C.​7.​2 Rules (Imp class)
C.​7.​3 Class assertion atom (ClassAtom class)
C.​7.​4 Datatype assertion atom (DataRangeAtom class)
C.​7.​5 Object property value atom (IndividualProper​tyAtom class)
C.​7.​6 Data property value atom (DatavaluedProper​tyAtom class)
C.​7.​7 Same individual atom (SameIndividualAt​om class)
C.​7.​8 Distinct individual atom (DifferentIndivid​ualAtom class)
C.​7.​9 Built-in function atom (BuiltinAtom class)
C.​8 PyMedTermino2
C.​8.​1 Terminology class
C.​8.​2 Concept in a terminology
C.​8.​3 Set of concepts (Concepts class)
C.​9 Global functions
Index
About the Author
Lamy Jean-Baptiste
is a senior lecturer at Sorbonne Paris
Nord University and a member of the
LIMICS, a research lab focused on
biomedical informatics. He is also the
developer of the Owlready2 Python
module that allows access to OWL
ontologies. He has developed many
research prototypes, and one of them
(VCM iconic medical language) has been
patented in the United States, with three
licenses sold to industrial partners.
Jean-Baptiste speaks regularly at
artificial intelligence and medical
informatics conferences, has written over 50 journal papers, and is a
moderator on the Owlready forum on Nabbles. He was awarded the
best paper award at MEDINFO 2019, the largest international
conference in medical informatics.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Caput decimum octāvum.

Suspīciō in laetitiam et admīrātiōnem versa. — Cāsus quī rīsum

legentī movēbit. — Rēbus secundīs adversae levantur.

P osterō diē Rōbinson cum sociō statim ad eum locum sē

contulit, ubi hesternō barbarōs atrōcibus epulīs accumbentēs
vīderat. Inter eundum eō dēvēnērunt, ubi ambō barbarī ā Rōbinsōne
interfectī harēnā obrutī jacēbant. Vendredi, locum dominō
dēmōnstrāns, apertē significāvit quantum gestīret cadāvera ista
ēruere, ut improbam carnis aviditātem explēret. Quem Rōbinson
intuēns torvō vultū, eī dēclārat quantum ā tālī facinore ipse
abhorreat, hastāque ēlātā, īnfēstō gestū, mortem eī dēnūntiat, eī
umquam ille ejusmodī cibum [145]attingeret. Quō quidem intellēctō,
Vendredi statim dominō pāruit, incertus tamen quam ob causam sibi
epulīs interdīcerētur, quās ā tenerīs nōn mediocriter appetierat.

Tunc ad locum convīviī dēvēnērunt. Heu ! quālis adspectus !

terra cruōre tīncta ! disjecta passim ossa ! Rōbinson oculōs āvertit,
sociumque jubet terram statim fodere, trīstēsque barbarōrum
helluōnum reliquiās condere.

Dum ille mandāta exsequitur, Rōbinson cinerēs sōpītōs attentē

suscitābat, spērāns sē aliquam ignis particulam inventūrum. Sed
frūstrā. Erat ignis omnīnō exstīnctus ; quō quidem Rōbinson
magnopere doluit. Ex quō enim dīvīnō mūnere socium sibi
adjūnxerat, nihil ipsī ferē optandum supererat praeter ignem. Dum
autem ille, capite inclīnātō, maestōque vultū exstīnctōs cinerēs
adspicit, ecce Vendredi, cum dominum cōgitātiōne dēfīxum
animadvertisset, nōnnūlla signa dedit, quae Rōbinson nōn
[146]intellēxit ; tum subitō arreptā secūrī, citātissimō cursū silvam
petit intimam, Rōbinsōnemque relinquit obstupēscentem.

« Quid hoc sibi vult ? ait sēcum Rōbinson, dum euntem ānxiīs
prōsequitur oculīs. Mēne homō dēserat, et ablātā secūrī aufugiat ?
an ille sit tam perfidus, ut meum habitāculum occupet, ut mē ipsum
vī inde arceat, et populāribus suīs inhūmānīs prōdat. Prōh scelus ! »
Statimque īnflammātus īrā hastam corripit, ut prōditōrem
persequātur, nefāriaque cōnsilia et pūniat et praevertat. Dum sīc dē
fide barbarī timet, videt hominem citātissimō cursū redeuntem.
Rōbinson sistit gradum, mīrāturque eum, quem prōditiōnem
māchinārī suspicātus fuerat, sublātum grāminis āridī manipulum
tenēre unde fūmus oriēbātur. Jam in flammam ērumpit ; et Vendredi,
manipulō in terram prōjectō, addit dīligenter majōrem grāminis āridī
atque sarmentōrum cōpiam, clārumque et ārdentem ignem
succendit : quod [147]quidem nōn minōrem Rōbinsōnī laetitiam quam
admīrātiōnem mōvit.

Tum compertā causā propter quam Vendredi subitō excurrerat,

cum ipse tantam laetitiam capere nōn posset, hic illum amplexus
ōsculātusque tacitē rogat praeconceptae suspīciōnis veniam.

Scīlicet Vendredi dīligenter silvam petierat, ut ē truncō āridō duo

lignī fragmenta excīderet. Quā ille scītē alterum alterō collīserat tantā
celeritāte, ut ignem conciperent. Tum citius lignīs āridō grāmine
involūtīs, cum istō manipulō prōcurrerat, quā motūs vēlōcitāte
exārserat fēnum.

Tantopere agitātiōne flammārum Rōbinson dēlectātus est, ut

illārum adspectū satiārī nōn posset. Tandem arreptā taedā, comite
Vendredi, in habitāculum properat.

Tum igne accēnsō, nōnnūllīsque sōlānōrum tūberibus circā

focum positīs, ad gregem festīnat ; lamae pullum ēligit, mac [148]tat,
dissecat, quārtamque ejus partem verū affīgit, quod sociō
versandum mandat.

Intereā dum ille hōc mūnere fungitur, Rōbinson segmentum

pectoris amputat ; tum nōnnūlla tūbera probē lavat, manipulumque
zēae duōbus saxīs adhibitīs molit ; haec omnia ōllae committit, in
quā, additō sale, idōneam aquae partem īnfundit, ac dēmum ōlla ignī
appōnitur.

Vendredi istum omnem apparātum cernēbat, nec intellegēbat

quō rēs spectāret. Nōverat quidem ūsum assandī, sed numquam dē
arte coquendī audīverat. Quīn etiam ignōrābat, quaenam esset vīs
ignis in aquam ōllae īnfūsam. Quae quidem fervere coepit, cum
Rōbinson paululum in spēluncam sēcessisset. Vendredi obstupuit,
mīrātus quid esset quod sīc aquam movēret.

Cum vērō eam vīdit exaestuantem et undequāque exundantem,

stultē putāvit animal in ōllā esse, quod istum dērepente aestum
excitāret : ut autem impedīret, nē omnis ab ollā aqua effunderētur,
manum [149]celeriter immersit, ut animal noxium caperet. Tum vērō
clāmōrem et ululātum ēdidit, quō tōta personuit spēlunca. Hōc audītō
Rōbinson valdē exterritus est, exīstimāns ā barbarīs
supervenientibus socium opprimī. Itaque timor et īnsitus in animīs
propriae salūtis amor suādēbant, ut per subterrāneum cunīculum
effugeret. Mox autem cōnsilium abjēcit, turpe ratus subditum, aut
potius amīcum, in ancipitī perīculō dēserere. Sine morā igitur ē
spēluncā prōrūpit armīs īnstrūctus, parātusque vītam ipse suam
profundere, ut comitem ē manibus barbarōrum iterum ēriperet.

Ut vērō obstupuit, cum hominem sōlum, āmentis īnstar,

ululantem gestūque īnsolitō circum trepidantem vīdit ! Diū quoque
Rōbinson dubius ānxiusque haesit. Rē dēmum explānātā, intellēxit
omne malum ex eō esse, quod manum sibi Vendredi leviter usserit.
Numquam ille neque audiendō, neque experiendō cognōverat aquae
fervōrem addī posse ; numquam manū tetigerat [150]aquam
fervidam : itaque nōn potuit intellegere, quae causa esset dolōris
ejus quem manū in aquam immersā sēnsit. Sīc igitur magicā
quādam arte hoc fierī, dominumque magum esse exīstimāvit,
Rōbinson aegrē animum sociī sēdāre, eīque persuādēre potuit, ut
dēnuō carnī verū versandae assidēret. Ille mandātō tandem
obsecūtus, ōllam nōn sine horrōris quōdam sēnsū, dominum vērō,
quem hūmānā condiciōne majōrem nunc putāvit, timidā cum
reverentiā contemplātus est. Quam quidem opīniōnem albus color
prōmissaque barba etiam cōnfirmābant : haec enim efficiēbant, ut
Rōbinson speciē ōris longē differret ā sociō ejusque populāribus,
fuscum colōrem et imberbem vultum praeferentibus.

Jam vērō prandium parātum erat. Quantopere Rōbinson calidīs

et pinguibus cibīs dēlectātus sit, facile est intellegere. Nunc quoque
calamitātum praeteritārum oblītus sibi in animō fingit jam nōn dēsertā
in īnsulā, sed in regiōne frequentissimā sē [151]versārī. Sīc animī
vulnera īnspērātō quōdam gaudiō sānārī solent, etsī illa plērumque
īnsānābilia putāmus.
 Prandiō cōnfectō, Rōbinson sēcessit, ut dē prōsperā rērum
suārum commūtātiōne sēcum ipse meditārētur. Nunc omnia eī
arrīdēre vīsa sunt. Quippe quī jam nōn esset homō sōlitārius,
sociōque gaudēret quīcum nōndum quidem colloquī, sed ex cujus
cōnsuētūdine multum sōlāciī opisque licēbat exspectāre.

Et vērō cōgitantī vēnit quidem in mentem vītam mollem atque

ōtiōsam agere, dum intereā Vendredi, juvenis rōbustusque, dē quō
praetereā tam bene meritus fuerat, ut eum sibi famulum jūre quōdam
vindicāret, necessāriīs mūneribus labōribusque perfungerētur. Sed
cum intus reputāsset fierī posse ut aliquandō tam fēlīcī ipse
condiciōne excideret ; tunc vērō, sī ōtiō atque inertiā corrumpī sē
paterētur, molestum sibi fore ad dūritiem paupertātemque priōris
vītae redīre ; statuit in labōre [152]aequē nāviter ac strēnuē
persevērāre : atque, hōc dēcrētō, ē strātō exsilit, citātōque gressū in
vestibulō domiciliī obambulat. Intereā Vendredi cibōrum reliquiīs in
cellā sēpositīs, Rōbinsōnis jussū, ad lamās mulgendās abit.
[153]
 Caput decimum nōnum.

Rōbinson habitāculum fossā et pālīs mūnit. — Docet socium

Germānicē loquī. — Ambō scapham fabricāre statuunt.

N umquam sānē, ex quō hanc in īnsulam advēnerat, laetior fuerat

Rōbinsōnis condiciō. Hoc ūnum erat illī metuendum, nē barbarī
reverterentur ad sociōs repetendōs, unde novīs cruentīsque proeliīs
sibi cum iīs certandum foret. Quīn ille cohorruit, dum cōgitāret in hōc
ancipitī discrīmine posse sē versārī, in quō sibi pereundum esset,
aut sanguis hominum profundendus.

Rēs igitur postulābat ut ad suam ipsīus dēfēnsiōnem nihil

intentātum relinqueret. [154]Jam diū habitāculum suum castellī īnstar
mūnīre optāverat ; hūc ūsque vērō, quamdiū vīxerat sōlitārius, hanc
spem penitus abjēcerat. Nunc autem, cum adesset socius labōris,
facilius hoc aggredī potuit. Itaque montis cacūmen cōnscendit, ut
meditārētur quōmodo sē tūtius firmiusque mūnīret ; atque hoc brevī
excōgitāvit, cum inde tōtam regiōnem oculīs complecterētur. Statuit
prīmum fossā lātā altāque domicilium cingere, pālīs validiōribus
saeptā, ac deinde rīvum nōn procul ab habitāculō scatentem ita
dīvidere, ut altera pars in fossā, altera per medium ātrium flueret, nē
umquam obsidiōne cīnctus aquae inopiā labōrāret.
 Haud facile erat haec omnia sociō signīs indicāre. Hic vērō cum
rem aliquā ex parte intellēxisset, ad lītus prōcurrit, atque inde retulit
varia īnstrūmenta fodiendō apta, conchās scīlicet magnās,
lapidēsque plānōs et acūtōs. Tum ambō opus inchoant.
[155]

Jam intellegere satis in prōmptū est hoc quoque arduum fuisse.

Fossa enim, ut esset idōnea, sex pedum altitūdinem, octo vērō
lātitūdinem requīrēbat. Ejus autem longitūdō octōgintā vel centum
passūs esse vidēbātur. Adde illōs īnstrūmentīs ferreīs, ligōne, spathā
penitus carēre. Pālīs quoque quadringentīs ferē opus erat, quōs ūnā
secūrī siliceā coaptāre et praeacuere rēs erat profectō plēna operae
et labōris. Praetereā, ut rīvum in fossam dēdūcerent, canālis erat per
tumulum quemdam interpositum fodiendus.

Neque tamen, licet omnibus hīs difficultātibus circumventus,

Rōbinson ā prōpositō dēterritus est. Sōbriē quoque vīvendī genus, et
corpus labōre exercendī cōnsuētūdō animum eī addiderat, quō
carēre iī solent quī, in ōtiō ēducātī, dēliciīs atque mollitiē diffluunt.

Ambō nīmīrum sociī ā summō māne ūsque ad vesperam nōn

alacrī minus quam [156]strēnuō animō operī incumbunt. Mīrum itaque
quantum vel īnstrūmentīs quam minimē aptīs adjūtī in diem
prōfēcerint. Nec per duōs mēnsēs continuōs, ventō obstante, barbarī
īnsulam invīsēre. Itaque licuit sociīs continuam operam mūnīmentīs
dare, nec illīs opus fuit sibi contrā repentīnam incursiōnem
praecavēre.

Rōbinson comitem, inter opus faciendum, germānicam linguam

docuit, cujus ope animī cōgitāta cum sociō commūnicāre
ārdentissimē cupiēbat. Hic autem tam docilem et attentum sē
praebuit, ut brevī tempore māximōs prōgressūs fēcerit. In quō
Rōbinson eādem arte ūsus est, quā sollers magister ut linguam
Latīnam Gallicamve discipulōs doceat. Quotiēs nempe fierī potuit, eā
rē, dē quā sermō erat, positā ante oculōs, distīnctā vōce nōmen ejus
prōnūntiābat. Cum vērō dē ejusmodī rēbus agerētur, quae oculīs
subjicī nōn poterant, vultū gestūque ita exprimere stu [157]duit, ut
Vendredi annō dīmidiō nōndum exāctō Rōbinsōnem intellegere,
cōgitātiōnumque participem eum facere posset.

Quod quidem multum Rōbinsōnis fēlīcitātī adjēcit. Hūc ūsque

enim socium quidem, sed mūtum eum habuerat ; tum vērō amīcum
sibi comparāvit. Vendredi enim semper honestum, candidum,
fidēlem grātumque dominō sē praestitit. Itaque Rōbinson cāriōrem
eum in diēs habuit, ac brevī tempore ēlāpsō nōn dubitāvit hoc eī
concēdere, ut in eādem spēluncā sēcum pernoctāret.

Duōrum ferē mēnsium spatiō fossa absolūta fuit. Quō factō, ita
mūnītī erant, ut jam barbarōrum impetum nōn modo nōn
extimēscere, sed eōs etiam, sī umquam oppugnārent arcem,
possent repellere. Prius enim quam ūllus fossam trānsīret aut pālōs
superāret, ab obsessīs aut sagittīs interficī, aut hastīs trānsfodī
impūne poterat. Itaque sēcūritātī suae nunc satis cōnsuluisse
vidēbantur.
[158]

Cum nōn ita multō post Rōbinson sociusque collem lītorī

vīcīnum forte cōnscendissent, unde maris adspectus longē et lātē
patēbat, Vendredi oculōs in quamdam ejus partem intendit, ubi
īnsulae aliquot ēminentēs cōnspicī ē longinquō poterant. Tum ille
subitō prae laetitiā exsultāre atque mīrum in modum gestīre coepit.
Quā dē rē interrogātus ā Rōbinsōne laetus ille exclāmat ! « Ēn ego
patriam adspiciō ! ibi gēns mea habitat. » Vultū vērō, oculīs gestūque
significābat quam cāra sibi esset patria, ac quantopere illam revīsere
optāret. Quod quidem Rōbinsōnī minimē placuit. Erat sānē affectus
ille animī in virō laudābilis, quō dēclārābat cāram esse patriam,
cārōs amīcōs, cārōs parentēs. Nāscitur enim nōbīscum sēnsus ille,
et, quaecumque illa sit quam prīmō quisque cognōvit intuitū, vel
signāvit vestīgiō, nūlla magis regiō arrīdet. Sed veritus nē
populārium amantior ipsum aliquandō dēsereret, animum ejus
pertentāre voluit, et sīc colloquium cum eō [159]iniit, ex quō optima
ejus indolēs patuit apertius.

Rōbinson. Num tū ad populārēs tuōs redīre et cum iīs habitāre

māllēs ?

Vendredi. Libenter equidem eōs revīserem.

Rōb. Scīlicet optārēs carne hūmānā cum iīs vēscī ?

Vendr. Minimē ! Eōs potius ad mōrēs hūmāniōrēs trādūcerem,

docēremque vēscī lacte et carne animālium, et imprīmīs ab hūmānā
abstinēre.

Rōb. Quid ? sī tē ipsum dēvorārent ?

Vendr. Hoc illī nōn facient.

Rōb. Attamen illī vēscuntur carne hūmānā.

Vendr. Sānē illī quidem ; sed nōnnisi carne hostium.

Rōb. An tū scapham cōnficere potes, quā ad eōs trānsvehāris ?

Vendr. Sānē quidem !

 Rōb. Eugē ! cōnfice tibi scapham, atque [160]ad illōs revertere.
Quid ! dējicis oculōs ! unde sīc dolēs ?

Vendr. Doleō quippe, quod dominus mihi cārissimus īrāscātur.

Rōb. Cūr vērō tibi īrāscar ?

Vendr. Ita rēs est ; quippe ille mē ā sē relēgātum velit.

Rōb. Anteā vērō optābās redīre in patriam ?

Vendr. Optāvī equidem : nisi vērō dominus meus ibi mēcum

versētur, ibi quoque ego versārī nōlim.

Rōb. Mē quidem populārēs tuī hostem exīstimantēs interficient

dēvorābuntque. Tū igitur sōlus proficīscere.

Quibus audītīs, Vendredi arreptam secūrim dominō reddit

porrēctā cervīce.

Rōb. Quid vīs ego faciam ?

Vendr. Ut mē interficiās. Mālim ego ā tē interficī quam relēgārī.

Hīs dictīs, Vendredi vim lacrimārum profundit. Rōbinson autem

vehementissimē commōtus eum amplectitur, exclā [161]māns : « Nōlī
timēre, ō bone. Ego quoque optō ut numquam ā tē dīvellar ; ex
animō enim tē dīligō. Quae anteā dīxī, haec ad fidem tuam
explōrandam dicta sunt, ut intellegerem an tuus meō amōrī amor pār
esset. Quās vidēs lacrimās, eae testēs sunt cāritātis meae. Ego tē
iterum amplectar ; flētum teneāmus, nec alter alterum umquam
dēserat. »
 Itaque ut animum amīcī ā maerōre āverteret, init sermōnem dē
scaphā quādam fabricandā, plūraque eā dē rē scīscitātur. Cum
Vendredi respōnsīs Rōbinsōnī abundē satisfēcisset, hic illum manū
prehēnsum sēcum abdūxit, ut ostenderet cymbam, cui fabricandae
ipse permultōs jam annōs impenderat. Vendredi, truncum intuēns,
vix tertiā parte excavātum, subrīsit. Cum autem Rōbinson ex eō
quaesiisset, quidnam illī in hōc opere minus probārētur, Vendredi
respondit minimē opus fuisse tantō istō labōre, ejusmodī truncum
intrā paucōs diēs melius excavārī posse.
[162]

Quibus audītīs, Rōbinson vehementer laetātus est. Jam

cymbam omnīnō cōnfectam sibi fingēbat animō, et nāvigātiōne
fēlīciter perāctā ad continentem terram appellere sibi vidēbātur. Ō
quanta illī laetitia, cum spēs lībertātis recuperandae arrīsit ! Et subitō
cōnstituunt opus proximō māne aggredī.
[163]
 Caput vīcēsimum.

Pluviārum tempus. — Sociī nectunt strāgulās, rētia. — Cymba

cōnficitur.

I psā diē operī dēstinātā, aderat pluviārum tempus : quod bis per
annum ingruere Rōbinson nōn ūnīus annī experientiā didicerat.
Quō tempore per duōs mēnsēs perpetuōs nūllī negōtiō vacāre extrā
domum licēbat ; tantā vī continuus imber ruēbat dē caelō !
Animadverterat quoque Rōbinson esse valētūdinī omnīnō contrārium
illā tempestāte forās exīre. Quid igitur faciendum erat ? Dīlātā nāvis
cōnfectiōne, tempus in labōribus domesticīs cōnsūmendum fuit.

Quantum prōfuit Rōbinsōnī per diēs illōs pluviōs, atque hōrās

vespertīnās lon [164]gās eāsdem obscūrāsque igne ūtī et lūmine,
amīcumque habēre, quīcum tempus inter opera domestica jūcundīs
cōnfābulātiōnibus trādūceret ! Anteā enim trīstēs istās noctēs
sōlitārius in ōtiō et tenebrīs dēgerat. Jam vērō cum sociō ad
lampadem et focum sedēns, in aliquā rē gerendā occupātus,
cōnfābulātur, neque umquam gravī dēsidiae pondere opprimitur.

Atque ex sociō didicit variās artēs quibus barbarī nōnnūllās sibi

commoditātēs comparant ; Rōbinson quoque multa illum docuit,
quae barbarīs latent. Ita in diēs perītiōrēs factī multa jūnctā operā
cōnfēcēre, quae neuter sōlus suscipere potuisset. Tum ambō
intellēxēre quanta ex hominum amīcā cōnspīrātiōne oriantur
commoda, quibus illī carērent, sī bēstiārum mōre singulī vagārentur.
In prīmīs Vendredi artem callēbat, quā tenuēs dēnsāsque librō
strāgulās necteret corporī vestiendō aptissimās. Quod cum
Rōbinson ex eō didicisset, tum illī certātim tam multās ejusmodī
texuērunt, [165]ut idōneum utrīque vestīmentum suppeteret. Ō quam
jūcundum Rōbinsōnī fuit abjicere amiculum istud molestum, ē
pellibus rigidīs nec subāctīs cōnfectum, quō hūc ūsque corpus ipsī
tegendum fuerat !

Vendredi etiam ē fibrīs nucum cocossae variīsque herbīs līnī

nātūram referentibus fīla ēdūcendī artem tenēbat, quae fūniculōs ā
Rōbinsōne hūc ūsque cōnfectōs longē superābant. Ē fīlīs rētia
piscātōria propriō ac singulārī artificiō nectēbat. Quibus in operibus
fabricandīs breviōrēs factae sunt vesperae, quae, omnibus hīs
dēficientibus, multum ipsīs taediī attulissent.

Intereā dum sedent, Rōbinson amīcī ingenium rude sēnsim

excolere, ejusque mentem certā vērāque nōtitiā Deī imbuere.
Quantīs vērō errōribus mēns illīus hāc in rē labōrāverit, ex sequentī
cōnfābulātiōne facile erit intellegere.

Rōb. Dīc mihi, quaesō, ō bone, nōstīne quis mare, quis terram,
quis animālia, tē ipsum dēnique creāverit ?
[166]

Vendr. Profectō ! Tupan ista creāvit.

Rōb. Quisnam est Tupan ille ?

Vendr. Is quī tonat.

 Rōb. Quisnam vērō ille est quī tonat ?

Vendr. Senex est aetāte prōvectissimus, quī omnibus cēterīs

rēbus superstes est, quīque tonitrū efficit. Aetāte sōlem, lūnam
stēllāsque longē superat, omnēsque animantēs eum adōrant, Ō !
dīcentēs.

Rōb. Quemnam in locum post mortem commigrant tuī

populārēs ?

Vendr. Ad Tupan revertuntur.

Rōb. Ubinam vērō ille habitat ?

Vendr. In excelsīs montibus.

Rōb. Num aliquis eum ibi vīdit ?

Vendr. Nēminī fās est eum adīre, nisi Ovocacēīs (id est
sacerdōtibus). Illī Ō dīcentēs eum interrogant, ac deinde nōbīs
referunt ejus respōnsa.

Rōb. Quī autem post mortem ad eum migrant, num fēlīcitāte

aliquā fruuntur ?

Vendr. Sānē illī quidem, sī magnam [167]hostium cōpiam

mactāverint atque comēderint.

Quō audītō, Rōbinson cohorruit, statimque illum meliōra dē Deō

vītāque futūrā docēre coepit ; Deum nempe esse omnipotentem,
sapientissimum benignissimumque ; quī omnia creāverit, omnia
regat, omnibus cōnsulat ; ipsum autem numquam orīginem
habuisse, ubīque adesse, illam intellegere quaecumque nōs
cōgitāmus, audīre quaecumque loquimur, vidēre quaecumque
agimus, quamvīs ipse ā nēmine vidērī queat ; habēre probōrum
atque improbōrum ratiōnem ; eamque ob causam cum in hāc, tum in
futūrā vītā nēminem beātum reddere, nisi illum quī ex animō virtūtī
studuerit.

Quae praeclāra plēnaque sōlāciī praecepta Vendredi magnā

cum reverentiā audiit, audītaque altē in animō īnfīxit. Cum magister
nōn minōrī docendī, quam discipulus discendī studiō flagrāret, hic
brevī praecipuam dē Deō ac religiōne doctrīnam te [168]nuit, quantum
huic ille explānāre poterat. Ex eō tempore Vendredi fēlīcissimum sē
exīstimāvit quod in hanc īnsulam dēferrī sibi contigisset.

Posteā Rōbinson precēs suās semper praesente sociō fundere

solēbat ; jūcundissimumque adspectū fuisset, quantō gaudiō, quantā
pietāte hic verba dominī ad verbum sequerētur. Tunc vērō tantā
ambō fēlīcitāte fruēbantur, quantam assequī possunt hominēs ab
hūmānā societāte sējūnctī. Sīc ēlāpsum est pluviārum tempus ūllā
sine molestiā. Caelō tandem serēna faciēs redierat ; cessābant
ventī, nimbīque aufūgerant. Rōbinson cum fīdō sociō pūram
tepidamque auram vēris spīrat. Ambō novīs vīribus auctōs sē
sentiunt, atque alacrī animō ad arduum opus susceptum sē
accingunt.

Vendredi admōtō igne truncum excavāvit, atque duōs intrā

mēnsēs id absolvit ; quod aegrē multōrum annōrum spatiō Rōbinson
sōlus cōnfēcisset. Jam praeter vēla [169]rēmōsque nihil dēfuit. Hōs
quidem Rōbinson, illa vērō Vendredi parātūrum sē spondet.

Ambō simul opus susceptum absolvēre ; sed īnstrūctā nāvī, nihil

superfuit nisi ut haec ā lītore in mare dēmitterētur. Quoniam vērō
locus, in quō nāvem fabricāverant, longē ā marī distābat, nōn satis
patēbat quā ratiōne, ut erat gravissima, ad mare aut dēdūcerētur, aut
dēportārētur, aut traherētur, aut dēnique prōvolverētur. Et nunc ex
illīs difficultātibus quōmodo sē expedient ?

Neque vērō Rōbinson oblītus erat ūtilitātis quam longa pertica

ipsī praestiterat. Quam ob rem nunc quoque illam adhibuit. Sed
nāvis tam lentē prōvolūta est, ut facile intellegerent sē integrum
mēnsem in hāc operā cōnsūmptūrōs esse.

Tandem opportūnē recordātus est alīus īnstrūmentī aequē

simplicis parābilisque, quō fabrī lignāriī aliīque in Eurōpā ūtī
[170]solent ad magna pondera prōmovenda, cylindrī nīmīrum.

Quod quidem vix Rōbinson expertus magnā cum laetitiā vīdit

quam facile nāvis prōmovērētur. Post bīduum marī quoque committī
potuit, magnōque cum voluptātis sēnsū uterque comperit illam ad
nāvigandum prōrsus esse idōneam.

Jam nihil superfuit nisi ut quae ad proficīscendum essent

necessāria parārentur, scīlicet ut nāvis tot onerārētur commeātibus
quot vehendīs sufficeret. Quōnam vērō illī tendent ? Vendredi
optābat ut in patriam redīret ; Rōbinson autem, ut ad continentem
Americae vēla darentur, ubi sē Hispānōs, aliōsque ab Eurōpā
profectōs inventūrum spērābat. Vendredi vērō patria nōnnisi quattuor
circiter mīliāribus aberat, terra continēns duodecim aut quīndecim.
Quod sī prius ad īnsulam tenderent, tunc ā continentī terrā plūribus
adhūc mīliāribus recēdēbant, atque hōc ipsō perīculum itineris
augēbātur.
[171]
 Vendredi nihil ex iīs quae pertinent ad nātūram maris nōverat
nisi quod necesse esset ut ad īnsulam suam pervenīret. Ista autem
magis etiam Rōbinson ignōrābat, quoniam in hōc marī numquam
nāvigāverat.

Tandem quā Rōbinson ārdēbat hominēs hūmānitāte excultōs

revīsendī cupiditās omnem dubitātiōnem vīcit. Quamvīs Vendredi
īnstāret, multaque et varia objiceret, statūtum est proximō diē iter
parāre, et ubi prīmum ventus adspīrāret, vēla dare, Deōque favente
illūc tendere ubi Vendredi spērābat sē proximam continentis ōram
inventūrum.
[172]
 Caput vīcēsimum prīmum.

Rōbinson et Vendredi, īnsulā relictā, marī sē committunt. —

Summa perīcula in quibus versantur.

R ōbinson, arce relictā, in tumulō imminente restitit, sēcum

paulisper meditātūrus, sociumque praeīre jussit. Tum vītae
sōlitāriae hīc āctae vicissitūdinēs mente repetit ; ac recordātus
quanta accēpisset ā suprēmō nūmine beneficia, lacrimās grātī animī
indicēs effundit, manibusque expānsīs, ex intimō pectore summā
cum pietāte Deō grātiās agit.

Tum regiōnem illam, eō sibi cāriōrem, quod eam mox relictūrus

erat, oculīs perlūstrāvit. Hominis īnstar quī patriam linquit nūllā cum
spē illīus umquam revīsendae, [173]oculī trīstēs madentēsque in
arbore quāvīs cujus umbrā ōlim recreātus fuerat, in opere quōlibet
quod propriīs manibus multōque sūdōre cōnfēcerat, dēfīxī haerent.
Ab amīcīs disjungī sibi vidētur. Cum vērō tandem lamās ad īmum
montem pāscentēs cōnspexisset, faciem āvertit, nē cārissimōrum
sibi animantium adspectū ipse ā prōpositō cōnsiliō āvocārētur.

Tandem vīcit cāritātem animī cōnstantia. Ad fortitūdinem sē ipse

exacuit, ulnīsque ad regiōnem tōtam, velutī eam amplexūrus,
expānsīs, clārā vōce exclāmāvit : « Valēte, ō calamitātum meārum
testēs ! valēte ! » Atque hōc ultimō valē inter singultūs ēmissō, in
viam quae ad lītus dūcēbat, sē contulit.

Eundō fīdissimum sibi psittacum per arborēs volitandō

sequentem animadvertit. Tum vērō victus voluntāte ejus sēcum
abdūcendī, vocat Pol, Pol. Ille vērō celerrimē dēsilit, atque ē dominī
manū in umerum prōvolat. Intereā Vendredi morae [174]impatiēns in
lītore exspectābat ; cumque Rōbinson ad eum pervēnisset, ambō
nāvem cōnscendunt.

Trīcēsimō diē novembris, hōrā octāvā mātūtīnā, annō post

Rōbinsōnis in hanc īnsulam adventum nōnō, caelō serēnissimō,
ventōque māximē secundō profectī sunt. Vix autem circiter duo mīlia
passuum prōgressī, ad continuam scopulōrum seriem pervēnēre
longē in mare prōcurrentem. Uterque perīculōsum putāvit saxa ista
superāre : itaque vēlō in aliam partem dīrēctō, circumīre nītuntur.
Cum autem illī extrēmam partem scopulōrum vix attigissent,
scapham summā cum vēlōcitāte abripī animadvertunt : exterritī
ambō vēlum colligere, exīstimantēs quippe repentīnum esse ventī
impetum. Frūstrā vērō. Scapha enim in praeceps prōna rapitur,
mediōque in flūmine marīnō versārī sē intellegunt.

Tum ambō vīribus conjūnctīs rēmīs pertinācius mare verberāre,

sī possint sca [175]pham ēripere. Illa vērō fūgit, īnstar sagittae, tantā
celeritāte, ut brevī ōra īnsulae oculīs subtraherētur. Jam in discrīmen
vītae sē pervēnisse sentiunt ; nec multō post summa quoque
montium cacūmina ex adspectū recessēre. Quod sī tunc etiam
impetus paululum remīsisset, āctum tamen dē illīs erat ; quippe quī,
cum carērent pyxide nauticā, viam invenīre nōn possent, quā ad
īnsulam reverterentur. Quid autem tētrius excōgitārī potest quam
mediō in ōceanō scaphā exiguā fragilīque vectōs jactārī, et sōlō
aliquot diērum vīctū īnstrūctōs !

Quantō autem praesidiō sincēra pietās integraque animī

cōnscientia iīs sit quī in calamitātibus versantur, nunc documentō est
Rōbinsōnis condiciō. Quibus sī noster tunc caruisset, quōmodo
malōrum vim dēnuō urgentem sustinuisset ? In hāc rērum
dēspērātiōne manūs sibi intulisset violentās, nē morte omnium
saevissimā, famē scīlicet, necārētur.

Socius vērō pietāte nōndum satis cōnfir [176]mātā, nec diuturnīs

calamitātibus spectātā, dē salūte prōrsus dēspērābat. Corporis enim
et animī vīribus frāctīs, rēmum abjicit ; vēcorsque et āmēns dominum
intuētur interrogāns, annōn satius sit ē nāve sē praecipitēs in
profundum dare, an morte celerrimā īnstantibus malīs sē ēripiant.
Initiō Rōbinson blandīs verbīs eum ērigere firmāreque tentat ; tum
castīgātor dēspērātiōnis lēnī vōce exprobrat, quod tam parum Deō
benignissimō cōnfīdat, eīque revocat in mentem quae ipsum dē
dīvīnā prōvidentiā docuerat. Vendredi, Rōbinsōnis cohortātiōnibus
permōtus, ērubuit ; rēmīsque receptīs ambō flūmen subigere, nec
bracchia remittere, etsī nūlla spēs salūtis affulgēbat. « Dēbitō, inquit
Rōbinson, officiō fungimur. Quamdiū spīritus nōn dēficit, nostrum est
ad vītam servandam omnibus quae supersunt nervīs ēnītī. Tunc, sī
ad ultimum moriendum est, morientibus erit sōlāciō, quod Deus sīc
voluerit. »

Intereā flūmen eādem cum violentiā ruit. [177]Scapha aestū

abripitur, omnisque spēs salūtis recuperandae ēvānēscit.

Vērum enim vērō cum jam mortālēs animīs dēficiunt, cum sunt
ab omnī spē dēstitūtī, tunc alma nūminis prōvidentia iīs praesentius