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 Professional Oracle® Programming

Rick Greenwald, Robert Stackowiak, Gary Dodge, David Klein, Ben Shapiro,
Christopher G. Chelliah
Professional Oracle® Programming
 Professional Oracle® Programming

Rick Greenwald, Robert Stackowiak, Gary Dodge, David Klein, Ben Shapiro,
Christopher G. Chelliah
Copyright © 2005 by Wiley Publishing Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted
under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permis-
sion of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8700. Requests
to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Legal Department, Wiley Publishing, Inc., 10475
Crosspoint Blvd., Indianapolis, IN 46256, (317) 572-3447, fax (317) 572-4355, or online at http://www.
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LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: THE PUBLISHER AND THE AUTHOR MAKE

NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO THE ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS
OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS WORK AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, INCLUDING
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MAY BE CREATED OR EXTENDED BY SALES OR PROMOTIONAL MATERIALS. THE ADVICE AND
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FROM. THE FACT THAT AN ORGANIZATION OR WEBSITE IS REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK AS A
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Trademarks: Wiley, the Wiley Publishing logo, Wrox, the Wrox logo, and Programmer to Programmer are
trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates. All other trademarks
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vendor mentioned in this book.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not
be available in electronic books.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Professional Oracle programming / Rick Greenwald ... [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes indexes.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7645-7482-5 (paper/website)
ISBN-10: 0-7645-7482-5 (paper/website)
1. Oracle (Computer file) 2. Relational databases. I. Greenwald, Rick.
QA76.9.D3P76646 2005
005.75'85--dc22
2005010511
ISBN 13: 978-076-457482-5
ISBN 10: 0-7645-7482-5
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1B/QS/QW/QV/IN
 About the Authors

Rick Greenwald has been in the technology industry for over 20 years and is the author of 12 previous
books, most of them on Oracle. He has been involved with development and databases for his entire
career, including stops at Data General, Cognos, Gupta Technologies, and his current employer, Oracle.
Computers and computing are a sideline for Rick — his real job is father to his three wonderful girls,
with a primary hobby of music appreciation.

Robert Stackowiak is Senior Director of Business Intelligence (BI) in Oracle’s Technology Business Unit.
He is recognized worldwide for his expertise in business intelligence and data warehousing in leading
the North American BI team at Oracle. His background includes over 20 years in IT related roles at
Oracle, IBM, Harris Computer Systems, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers including management
of technical teams, software development, sales and sales consulting, systems engineering, and business
development.

Gary Dodge has been focused on database technology since his first COBOL programming job with IMS
DB/DC in 1976. He joined Oracle Corporation in 1987 and has served in various management and
technical positions within both the sales and consulting divisions. He has been a frequent speaker on
database topics at many local and national information technology conferences. In addition to several
magazine articles, he is co-author (with Tim Gorman) of Oracle8 Data Warehousing and Essential Oracle8i
Data Warehousing, both published by John Wiley & Sons.

David Klein has been in the technology industry for over 20 years with a variety of companies, including
Data General, Wang Laboratories, Gupta Technologies, Oracle, and a few consulting services companies.
He has had many roles, including management of application development and database design teams,
sales and sales consulting, systems engineering and marketing. Recently, he has focused on developing
classroom and online training courses. An active wife and two boys and a 200-year-old house take up any
free time.

Ben Shapiro is the president of ObjectArts Inc., a New York City-based technology consulting company,
and has been designing database systems with Oracle since 1997. ObjectArts has worked with many
large corporate clients developing XML-based publishing tools and web-based applications. Before
ObjectArts, Ben worked with several NYC-based startup companies as a technical lead building content
management software.

Christopher G. Chelliah joined Oracle as a Consultant in 1995. He brings with him project management,
architecture, and development experience from a number of large, multinational sites in the mining, oil
and gas, and telecom industries. Chris has been involved with emerging and database technologies for
his entire career and is an accomplished software architect with a flair for business development. His
expertise has been actively sought by a number of major Oracle clients in Australia, Europe, and the
United States. Chris, his wife and two kids are currently in Singapore, where he leads a team defining
and executing on innovative E-Government strategies for Oracle’s Public Sector industry in Asia Pacific.
 Credits
Vice President and Executive Group Publisher Development Editor
Richard Swadley Sharon Nash

Vice President and Publisher Production Editor

Joseph B. Wikert Felicia Robinson

Executive Editor Technical Editors

Robert Elliott Michael Ault, Tim Gorman,
Wiley-Dreamtech India Pvt Ltd
Editorial Manager
Mary Beth Wakefield Text Design & Composition
Wiley Composition Services
Senior Production Editor
Geraldine Fahey
 Acknowledgments

Although there are a number of names listed on the title page of this book, there are many other people
involved in the creation of the work you are currently reading.

First and foremost, all of the authors would like to thank Bob Elliott and Sharon Nash for their steady
hands on the throttle of this project. Although the birthing of this baby had more than the normal share
of labor pains, the worth and beauty of this offspring owes an enormous amount to them.

Rick Greenwald, in particular, would like to thank two people. First of all, the process of writing three
(is it three already) titles and several revisions of books with Bob Stackowiak has been a wonderful
experience, both professionally and personally. I am delighted to count Bob as a friend, and, thanks to
him, I still don’t know what BI stands for.

Secondly, throughout my writing career, Steven Feurstein has been a mentor as well as a sterling example
of what an author and person should be like. I hope to someday reach his level in terms of writing and,
even more importantly, humanity.

And, of course, I would like to thank my family — LuAnn for helping me have a life that supports writing
and working, and Elinor Vera, Josephine, and Robin Greenwald for giving me all the inspiration anyone
would ever need.

In addition, Rick would like to acknowledge all those people who came through with suggestions and
knowledge at crucial times, including Richard Foote, Raj Mattamal and Tyler Muth.
 Contents

About the Authors v

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction xxvii
Introduction xxvii
What Does This Book Cover? xxvii
Who Is This Book For? xxvii
What You Need to Use This Book xxviii
How Is This Book Structured? xxviii
Part I: Oracle Essentials xxviii
Part II: Data Topics xxix
Part III: Database Programming Languages xxix
Part IV: Programming Techniques xxix
Part V: Business Intelligence Techniques xxx
Part VI: Optimization xxx
The Bigger Picture xxx
Conventions xxx
Source Code xxxi
Errata xxxi
p2p.wrox.com xxxii

Chapter 1: Oracle Architecture and Storage 1

Architecture 2
The Instance 2
Data Organization 6
Data Types 9
Character Data Types 9
BFILE 10
Numeric Data Types 11
Date Data Types 12
RAW and LONG RAW 12
Other Data Types 13
Summary 13
Contents
Chapter 2: Using SQL 15
The Processing Cycle for SQL Statements 15
Connecting to a Database 16
Establishing a Cursor 18
Submitting SQL Statements 18
Receiving Data 21
Performance Considerations 21
Retrieval Performance 22
Using Bind Variables 23
Parallel Operations 25
Summary 26

Chapter 3: Handling Multiple Users 27

Goals 28
Data Integrity 28
Isolation 29
Serialization 29
Transactions 29
Concurrent User Integrity Problems 30
Locks 33
Contention 34
The Oracle Solution 35
Multiversion Read Consistency 35
Integrity Implications 37
Performance Implications 37
Isolation Levels 38
Implementation Issues 39
Write Contention 39
Avoiding Changed Data 40
Summary 41

Chapter 4: Database Design Basics 43

Database Design Phases 45
Conceptual Database Design 45
Logical Database Design 45
Physical Design 46
Practical Design 47
Database Design Tools 48
Database Design Techniques 49
Database Design Case Study Example 53

xii
Other documents randomly have
different content
greater part of England is supplied with common ware, and also with
that finer sort called Wedgewood, after its inventor, and known all
over Europe. Etruria is the name which he gave to his fabric,
because the Etruscan remains were his models, and to him it is that
England, and, it may be added, Europe,—for where do not the
fashions of England extend?—is indebted for having familiarised to
us the beautiful forms of Etruscan design.
This is a populous province; in no other part have I seen the
towns standing so near together. We soon advanced to Newcastle-
under-Line. Here my friend the coachman told me they had a
curious custom of punishing scolds, by putting a bridle and bitt into
the mouth of the offender, so as to confine her tongue, and leading
her in this manner through the streets as an example. Whether the
English women are particularly addicted to this offence, I am not
sufficiently acquainted with them to say; but it should seem so by
the severity with which the laws regard it. In other places immersion
is the punishment; the woman is fastened in a chair at the end of a
long plank or pole, which is hoisted out over the river, and there
elevated or lowered by means of a lever; in this manner they dip her
as often as the officiating constable thinks proper, or till she no
longer displays any inclination to continue the offence, which
probably is not till she has lost the power. Both methods are
effectual ones of enforcing silence upon an unruly tongue, but they
are barbarous customs, and ought to be wholly disused.[6]
We were now entering Cheshire, the great cheese country, and
the difference between a land of manufactures and a land of
pasturage was delightful. The houses of the labourers were clean
cottages: those of the rich, old mansions with old trees about them
in view of the village church, where generation after generation, for
ages back, the heirs of the family had been baptized in the same
font, and buried in the same vault; not newly-erected brick buildings
with shrubs and saplings round them, in hearing of the mill-wheels
and hammer, by which the fortune of the owner has been fabricated.
One house which we passed was the most singular I have ever
seen: very old it must needs be,—how many centuries I will not
venture to conjecture. The materials are wood and mortar without
stone; the timber-frames painted black, and the intervening panes of
plaster-work whitened; no dress in an old picture was ever more
curiously variegated with stripes and slashes. The roof rises into
many points; the upper story projecting over the lower like a
machicolated gateway, except that the projection is far greater; and
long windows with little diamond-shaped panes reach almost from
side to side, so that the rooms must be light as a lantern. There is a
moat round it. I should guess it to be one of the oldest dwelling-
houses in the kingdom.
We saw this quiet pastoral country to the best advantage; the sun
was setting, and the long twilight of an English summer evening
gives to the English landscape a charm wholly its own. As soon as it
grew dark the coach lamps were lighted; the horses have no bells,
and this is as needful for the security of other travellers as for our
own. But the roads are wide; and if a traveller keeps his own proper
side, according to the law of the roads, however fearful it may be to
see two of these fiery eyes coming on through the darkness, at the
rate of two leagues in the hour, he is perfectly safe. We meant,
when evening closed, to have forsaken the roof and taken our seats
withinside; but the places were filled by chance passengers picked
up on the way, and no choice was left us. Star-light and a mild
summer air made the situation not unpleasant, if we had not been
weary and disposed to sleep; this propensity it was not safe to
indulge; and the two hours after night set in till we reached
Manchester, were the most wearying of the whole day.
The entrance into the city reminded me of London, we drove so
long over rough street stones, only the streets were shorter and the
turns we made more frequent. It was midnight when we alighted at
a spacious inn, called the Bridgewater Arms. In these large
manufacturing towns, inns have neither the cleanliness or comfort
which we find in smaller places. In the country there is a civility
about the people of the house, and an attention on their part, which,
though you know hospitality is their trade, shows, or seems to show,
something of the virtue. Here all is hurry and bustle; customers must
come in the way of trade, and they care not whether you are
pleased or not. We were led into a long room, hung round with
great-coats, spurs, and horsewhips, and with so many portmanteaus
and saddle-bags lying about it, that it looked like a warehouse. Two
men were smoking over a bottle of wine at one table; they were
talking of parabolics and elliptics, and describing diagrams on the
table with a wet finger; a single one was writing at another, with a
large pocket-book lying open before him. We called for supper; and
he civilly told us that he also had given a like order, and if we would
permit him should be happy to join us. To this we of course acceded.
We found him to be a commercial traveller, and he gave us some
useful information concerning Manchester, and the best method of
proceeding on our journey. It was going towards two o'clock when
we retired. We slept as usual in a double-bedded room, but we had
no inclination to converse after we were in bed. I fell asleep almost
instantaneously, and did not awake till nine in the morning.—I must
not forget to tell you, that over the entrance to the passage on each
side of which the bed-rooms are arranged, is written in large letters
Morphean!
[5] If Don Manuel had remained long enough in England, he
might have seen parliament annulling its own contract in its
own wrong, granting away the public money at a time when
the people were more heavily burthened than they had ever
been before, and doing this in defiance of the legal authorities.
—Tr.
[6] D. Manuel is mistaken in supposing that they are still in
use. The ducking-stools are fallen into decay, and in many
places the stocks also,—little to the credit of the magistrates.—
Tr.
 LETTER XXXVIII.
Manchester.—Cotton Manufactory.—Remarks upon the pernicious
Effects of the manufacturing System.
J. had provided us with letters to a gentleman in Manchester; we
delivered them after breakfast, and were received with that courtesy
which a foreigner, when he takes with him the expected
recommendations, is sure to experience in England. He took us to
one of the great cotton manufactories, showed us the number of
children who were at work there, and dwelt with delight on the
infinite good which resulted from employing them at so early an age.
I listened without contradicting him, for who would lift up his voice
against Diana in Ephesus!—proposed my questions in such a way as
not to imply, or at least not to advance, any difference of opinion,
and returned with a feeling at heart which makes me thank God I
am not an Englishman.
There is a shrub in some of the East Indian islands which the
French call veloutier; it exhales an odour that is agreeable at a
distance, becomes less so as you draw nearer, and, when you are
quite close to it, is insupportably loathsome. Alciatus himself could
not have imagined an emblem more appropriate to the commercial
prosperity of England.
Mr —— remarked, that nothing could be so beneficial to a country
as manufactures. "You see these children, sir," said he. "In most
parts of England poor children are a burthen to their parents and to
the parish; here the parish, which would else have to support them,
is rid of all expense; they get their bread almost as soon as they can
run about, and by the time they are seven or eight years old bring in
money. There is no idleness among us:—they come at five in the
morning; we allow them half an hour for breakfast, and an hour for
dinner; they leave work at six, and another set relieves them for the
night; the wheels never stand still." I was looking while he spoke, at
the unnatural dexterity with which the fingers of these little
creatures were playing in the machinery, half giddy myself with the
noise and the endless motion: and when he told me there was no
rest in these walls, day nor night, I thought that if Dante had
peopled one of his hells with children, here was a scene worthy to
have supplied him with new images of torment.
"These children, then," said I, "have no time to receive
instruction." "That, sir," he replied, "is the evil which we have found.
Girls are employed here from the age you see them till they marry,
and then they know nothing about domestic work, not even how to
mend a stocking or boil a potatoe. But we are remedying this now,
and send the children to school for an hour after they have done
work." I asked if so much confinement did not injure their health.
"No," he replied, "they are as healthy as any children in the world
can be. To be sure, many of them as they grew up went off in
consumptions, but consumption was the disease of the English." I
ventured to enquire afterwards concerning the morals of the people
who were trained up in this monstrous manner, and found, what was
to be expected, that in consequence of herding together such
numbers of both sexes, who are utterly uninstructed in the
commonest principles of religion and morality, they were as
debauched and profligate as human beings under the influence of
such circumstances must inevitably be; the men drunken, the
women dissolute; that however high the wages they earned, they
were too improvident ever to lay-by for a time of need; and that,
though the parish was not at the expense of maintaining them when
children, it had to provide for them in diseases induced by their
mode of life, and in premature debility and old age; the poor-rates
were oppressively high, and the hospitals and workhouses always
full and overflowing. I enquired how many persons were employed
in the manufactory, and was told, children and all about two
hundred. What was the firm of the house?—There were two
partners. So! thought I,—a hundred to one!
 "We are well off for hands in Manchester," said Mr —— ;
"manufactures are favourable to population, the poor are not afraid
of having a family here, the parishes therefore have always plenty to
apprentice, and we take them as fast as they can supply us. In new
manufacturing towns they find it difficult to get a supply. Their only
method is to send people round the country to get children from
their parents. Women usually undertake this business; they promise
the parents to provide for the children; one party is glad to be eased
of a burthen, and it answers well to the other to find the young ones
in food, lodging, and clothes, and receive their wages." "But if these
children should be ill-used?" said I. "Sir," he replied, "it never can be
the interest of the women to use them ill, nor of the manufacturers
to permit it."
It would have been in vain to argue had I been disposed to it. Mr
—— was a man of humane and kindly nature, who would not himself
use any thing cruelly, and judged of others by his own feelings. I
thought of the cities in Arabian romance, where all the inhabitants
were enchanted: here Commerce is the queen witch, and I had no
talisman strong enough to disenchant those who were daily drinking
of the golden cup of her charms.
We purchase English cloth, English muslins, English buttons, &c.
and admire the excellent skill with which they are fabricated, and
wonder that from such a distance they can be afforded to us at so
low a price, and think what a happy country is England! A happy
country indeed it is for the higher orders; no where have the rich so
many enjoyments, no where have the ambitious so fair a field, no
where have the ingenious such encouragement, no where have the
intellectual such advantages; but to talk of English happiness is like
talking of Spartan freedom, the Helots are overlooked. In no other
country can such riches be acquired by commerce, but it is the one
who grows rich by the labour of the hundred. The hundred human
beings like himself, as wonderfully fashioned by Nature, gifted with
the like capacities, and equally made for immortality, are sacrificed
body and soul. Horrible as it must needs appear, the assertion is true
to the very letter. They are deprived in childhood of all instruction
and all enjoyment; of the sports in which childhood instinctively
indulges, of fresh air by day and of natural sleep by night. Their
health physical and moral is alike destroyed; they die of diseases
induced by unremitting task-work, by confinement in the impure
atmosphere of crowded rooms, by the particles of metallic or
vegetable dust which they are continually inhaling; or they live to
grow up without decency, without comfort, and without hope,
without morals, without religion, and without shame, and bring forth
slaves like themselves to tread in the same path of misery.
The dwellings of the labouring manufacturers are in narrow streets
and lanes, blocked up from light and air, not, as in our country, to
exclude an insupportable sun, but crowded together because every
inch of land is of such value, that room for light and air cannot be
afforded them. Here in Manchester a great proportion of the poor
lodge in cellars, damp and dark, where every kind of filth is suffered
to accumulate, because no exertions of domestic care can ever make
such homes decent. These places are so many hot-beds of infection;
and the poor in large towns are rarely or never without an infectious
fever among them, a plague of their own, which leaves the
habitations of the rich, like a Goshen of cleanliness and comfort,
unvisited.
Wealth flows into the country, but how does it circulate there? Not
equally and healthfully through the whole system; it sprouts into
wens and tumours, and collects in aneurisms which starve and palsy
the extremities. The government indeed raises millions now as easily
as it raised thousands in the days of Elizabeth: the metropolis is six
times the size which it was a century ago; it has nearly doubled
during the present reign; a thousand carriages drive about the
streets of London, where, three generations ago, there were not an
hundred; a thousand hackney coaches are licensed in the same city,
where at the same distance of time there was not one; they whose
grandfathers dined at noon from wooden trenchers, and upon the
produce of their own farms, sit down by the light of waxen tapers to
be served upon silver, and to partake of delicacies from the four
quarters of the globe. But the number of the poor, and the sufferings
of the poor, have continued to increase; the price of every thing
which they consume has always been advancing, and the price of
labour, the only commodity which they have to dispose of, remains
the same. Work-houses are erected in one place, and infirmaries in
another; the poor-rates increase in proportion to the taxes; and in
times of dearth the rich even purchase food, and retail it to them at
a reduced price, or supply them with it gratuitously: still every year
adds to their number. Necessity is the mother of crimes; new prisons
are built, new punishments enacted; but the poor become year after
year more numerous, more miserable, and more depraved; and this
is the inevitable tendency of the manufacturing system.
This system is the boast of England,—long may she continue to
boast it before Spain shall rival her! Yet this is the system which we
envy, and which we are so desirous to imitate. Happily our religion
presents one obstacle; that incessant labour which is required in
these task-houses can never be exacted in a Catholic country, where
the Church has wisely provided so many days of leisure for the
purposes of religion and enjoyment. Against the frequency of these
holy days much has been said; but Heaven forbid that the clamour
of philosophizing commercialists should prevail, and that the
Spaniard should ever be brutalized by unremitting task-work, like the
negroes in America, and the labouring manufacturers in England! Let
us leave to England the boast of supplying all Europe with her
wares; let us leave to these lords of the sea the distinction of which
they are so tenacious, that of being the white slaves of the rest of
the world, and doing for it all its dirty work. The poor must be kept
miserably poor, or such a state of things could not continue; there
must be laws to regulate their wages, not by the value of their work,
but by the pleasures of their masters; laws to prevent their removal
from one place to another within the kingdom, and to prohibit their
emigration out of it. They would not be crowded in hot task-houses
by day, and herded together in damp cellars at night; they would not
toil in unwholesome employments from sun-rise till sun-set, whole
days, and whole days and quarters, for with twelve hours labour the
avidity of trade is not satisfied; they would not sweat night and day,
keeping up this laus perennis[7] of the Devil, before furnaces which
are never suffered to cool, and breathing in vapours which inevitably
produce disease and death; the poor would never do these things
unless they were miserably poor, unless they were in that state of
abject poverty which precludes instruction, and, by destroying all
hope for the future, reduces man, like the brutes, to seek for
nothing beyond the gratification of present wants.
How England can remedy this evil, for there are not wanting in
England those who perceive and confess it to be an evil, it is not
easy to discover, nor is it my business to enquire. To us it is of more
consequence to know how other countries may avoid it, and, as it is
the prevailing system to encourage manufactures every where, to
enquire how we may reap as much good and as little evil as
possible. The best methods appear to be by extending to the utmost
the use of machinery, and leaving the price of labour to find its own
level: the higher it is the better. The introduction of machinery in an
old manufacturing country always produces distress by throwing
workmen out of employ, and is seldom effected without riots and
executions. Where new fabrics are to be erected it is obvious that
this difficulty does not exist, and equally obvious that, when hard
labour can be performed by iron and wood, it is desirable to spare
flesh and blood. High wages are a general benefit, because money
thus distributed is employed to the greatest general advantage. The
labourer, lifted up one step in society, acquires the pride and the
wants, the habits and the feelings, of the class now next above him.
[8] Forethought, which the miserably poor necessarily and
instinctively shun, is, to him who earns a comfortable competence,
new pleasure; he educates his children, in the hope that they may
rise higher than himself, and that he is fitting them for better
fortunes. Prosperity is said to be more dangerous than adversity to
human virtue; both are wholesome when sparingly distributed, both
in the excess perilous always, and often deadly: but if prosperity be
thus dangerous, it is a danger which falls to the lot of few; and it is
sufficiently proved by the vices of those unhappy wretches who exist
in slavery, under whatever form or in whatever disguise, that hope is
as essential to prudence, and to virtue, as to happiness.

[7] I am informed by a catholic, that those convents in which

the choir service is never discontinued are said to have laus
perennis there.—Tr.
[8] This argument has been placed in a more forcible light in
the first volume of the Annual Review, in an article upon the
Reports of the Society for bettering the Condition of the Poor,
attributed to a gentleman of Norwich. It is one of the ablest
chapters upon this branch of political œconomy that has ever
been written.—Tr.
 LETTER XXXIX.
Manchester.—Journey to Chester.—Packet-boat.—Brindley.—Rail
Roads.—Chester Cathedral.—New Jail.—Assassination in the
South of Europe not like Murder in England.—Number of
Criminals.—but Abatement of Atrocity in Crimes.—Mitigation of
Penal Law.—Robert Dew.—Excellent Administration of Justice.—
Amendments still desired.
A place more destitute of all interesting objects than Manchester it is
not easy to conceive. In size and population it is the second city in
the kingdom, containing above fourscore thousand inhabitants.
Imagine this multitude crowded together in narrow streets, the
houses all built of brick and blackened with smoke; frequent
buildings among them as large as convents, without their antiquity,
without their beauty, without their holiness; where you hear from
within, as you pass along, the everlasting din of machinery; and
where, when the bell rings, it is to call wretches to their work
instead of their prayers.... Imagine this, and you have the materials
for a picture of Manchester. The most remarkable thing which I have
seen here is the skin of a snake, fourteen English feet in length,
which was killed in the neighbourhood, and is preserved in the
library of the collegiate church.
We left it willingly on Monday morning, and embarked upon the
canal in a stage-boat bound for Chester, a city which we had been
advised by no means to pass by unseen. This was a new mode of
travelling, and a delightful one it proved. The shape of the machine
resembles the common representations of Noah's ark, except that
the roof is flatter, so made for the convenience of passengers. Within
this floating house are two apartments, seats in which are hired at
different prices, the parlour and the kitchen. Two horses, harnessed
one before the other, tow it along at the rate of a league an hour;
the very pace which it is pleasant to keep up with when walking on
the bank. The canal is just wide enough for two boats to pass;
sometimes we sprung ashore, sometimes stood or sate upon the
roof,—till to our surprise we were called down to dinner, and found
that as good a meal had been prepared in the back part of the boat
while we were going on, as would have been supplied at an inn. We
joined in a wish that the same kind of travelling were extended
every where: no time was lost; kitchen and cellars travelled with us;
the motion was imperceptible; we could neither be overturned nor
run away with, if we sunk there was not depth of water to drown us;
we could read as conveniently as in a house, or sleep as quietly as in
a bed.
England is now intersected in every direction by canals. This is the
province in which they were first tried by the present duke of
Bridgewater, whose fortune has been amply increased by the
success of his experiment. His engineer Brindley was a singular
character, a man of real genius for this particular employment, who
thought of nothing but locks and levels, perforating hills, and floating
barges upon aqueduct bridges over unmanageable streams. When
he had a plan to form he usually went to bed, and lay there working
it out in his head till the design was completed. It is recorded of him,
that being asked in the course of an examination before the House
of Commons for what he supposed rivers were created, he answered
after a pause,—To feed navigable canals.
Excellent as these canals are, rail-roads are found to accomplish
the same purpose at less expense. In these the wheels of the
carriage move in grooves upon iron bars laid all along the road;
where there is a descent no draught is required, and the laden
waggons as they run down draw the empty ones up. These roads
are always used in the neighbourhood of coal-mines and founderies.
It has been recommended by speculative men that they should be
universally introduced, and a hope held out that at some future time
this will be done, and all carriages drawn along by the action of
steam-engines erected at proper distances. If this be at present one
of the dreams of philosophy, it is a philosophy by which trade and
manufactures would be benefited and money saved; and the dream
therefore may probably one day be accomplished.
The canal not extending to Chester, we were dismissed from the
boat about half way between the two cities, near the town of
Warrington, which was just distant enough to form a pleasing object
through the intervening trees. A stage, to which we were consigned,
was ready to receive us; and we exchanged, not very willingly, the
silent and imperceptible motion of a water journey, to be jolted over
rough roads in a crowded and noisy coach. The country was little
interesting, and became less so as we advanced. I saw two bodies
swinging from a gibbet by the road side; they had robbed and
murdered a post-boy, and, according to the barbarous and indecent
custom of England, were hanged up upon the spot till their bones
should fall asunder.
We found Chester to be as remarkable a place as our travelling
friend at Manchester had represented it. The streets are cut out of a
soft red rock, and passengers walk, not upon flag-stones at the side,
as in most other cities, nor in the middle of the street,—but through
the houses, upon a boarded parade, through what would elsewhere
be the front room of the first floor. Whenever a lane or street strikes
off, there is a flight of steps into the carriage road. The best shops
are upon this covered way, though there are others underneath it on
a level with the street. The cathedral is a mean edifice of soft, red,
crumbly stone, apparently quarried upon the spot: it would have
been folly to have erected any thing better with such wretched
materials.
The old walls are yet standing; there is a walk on the top of them,
from whence we overlooked the surrounding country, the mountains
of Wales not far distant, and the river Dee, which passes by the city,
and forms an estuary about two leagues below it. The new jail is
considered as a perfect model of prison architecture, a branch of the
art as much studied by the English of the present day, as ever
cathedral building was by their pious ancestors. The main objects
attended to are, that the prisoners be kept apart from each other,
and that the cells should be always open to inspection, and well
ventilated, so as to prevent infectious disorders, which were
commonly occurring in old prisons. The structure of this particular
prison is singularly curious, the cells being so constructed that the
jailor from his dwelling-house can look into every one,—a
counterpart to the whispering dungeons in Sicily, which would have
delighted Dionysius. I thought of Asmodeus and Don Cleofas. The
apartment from whence we were shown the interior of the prison
was well, and even elegantly furnished; there were geraniums
flowering upon stands,—a piano-forte, and music-books lying open,
—and when we looked from the window we saw criminals with irons
upon their legs, in solitary dungeons:—one of them, who was
intently reading some devotional book, was, we were told, certainly
to be executed at the next assizes. Custom soon cauterizes human
sympathy; or the situation of the keeper who sits surrounded with
comforts, and has these things always in view, would be well nigh as
deplorable as that of the wretches under his care.
Of late years the office of jailor has become of considerable
importance, and ennobled by the title of Governor. The increase of
criminals has given it this consequence; and that the number of
criminals must be prodigiously increased, is sufficiently proved by
the frequency and magnitude of these new prisons. In fact, more
persons annually suffer death in this country than in the whole of
Christendom besides; and from hence it has been inferred, that
either the people of England are the most depraved people in
Europe, or their laws are the bloodiest. No, say the English; the true
reason is, that in other countries crimes are committed with
impunity,—and they never fail to instance assassination: thus they
satisfy themselves and silence the objector. True it is that in all the
southern parts of Europe, to our shame be it spoken, assassination
is far more frequently committed than punished; but murder with us,
generally speaking, is neither in its motive nor in its manner, the
same atrocious crime which in England is regarded with such
religious abhorrence, and punished with such certain severity.
Among us, a love dispute between peasants or mechanics leads as
regularly to this deadly spirit of revenge, as a quarrel upon the point
of honour between two English gentlemen. The Spanish zagal holds
the life of his rival no cheaper than the English gentleman that of his
equal, who has elbowed him in the street, or intruded into his places
at the theatre; a blow with us is revenged by the knife, as it is in
England with the pistol. The difference is, that the sense of honour
extends lower in society among us, and that the impunity which we
allow to all, is restricted in England to the higher orders; and the
truth is, that, wherever assassination or duelling prevails, the fault is
more to be imputed to the laws than to the people. These are
offences from which men may be easily deterred; life will never be
held cheap by the people, if the laws teach them that it should be
held sacred.
Every stage of society has its characteristic crimes. The savage is
hard-hearted to his children, brutal to his women, treacherous to his
enemies; he steals and runs away with his booty; he poisons his
weapons; he is cowardly and cruel. In the barbarian, pride and
courage introduce a sense of honour which lays the foundation for
morality: he is a robber, not a thief, ferocious instead of cunning,
rather merciless than cruel. When states become settled, new
offences spring up, as the weeds in meadow land differ from those
of the waste; laws are necessary to restrain the strong from
oppression, and the weak from revenge. A new tribe of evils
accompany civilization and commerce,—the vices which are fostered
by wealth, and the crimes which are produced by want. Still the
progress of the human race, though slow, is sure; the laws and the
people soften alike, and crimes and punishments both become less
atrocious.
More offences are committed in England than in other countries,
because there is more wealth and more want; greater temptations
to provoke the poor, greater poverty to render them liable to
temptation, and less religious instruction to arm them against it. In
Scotland, where the puritan clergy retain something of their primitive
zeal, the people are more moral; poverty is almost general there,
and therefore the less felt, because there is little wealth to invite the
contrast. In both countries the greater number of offences are
frauds; even they who prey upon society partake of its amelioration,
and forsake the barbarous habits of robbery and murder, for
methods less perilous to themselves and to others. The weasel fares
better than the wolf, and continues her secret depredations after the
wolf has been extirpated. In Ireland, on the contrary, where the
characteristics of savage life are still to be found, murder is the most
frequent crime; and, horrid as it is, it is generally rendered still more
so by circumstances of wanton cruelty. If the Welsh are addicted to
any peculiar offence it is sheep-stealing, because the sheep have
ceased to be wild,—and the people have not.
The laws are mitigated in due proportion to the amelioration of
the people:—it was formerly the custom, if a prisoner refused to
plead to a capital charge, to stretch him upon his back, and lay
weights upon his breast, which were daily to be increased till he
died; now he is regarded as guilty, and sentenced as such. Till lately,
women were burnt when men were only hanged;[9] the punishment
is now the same for both sexes; the horrible butchery for treason, by
which the martyrs suffered under the persecutions of Elizabeth and
James, is commuted for beheading. In these last instances the
mitigation is of the national manners, and not of the law: but the
laws themselves should be amended; custom is no security: a cruel
minister might enforce these inhuman sentences which are still
pronounced,—and nations can never take too many precautions
against the possibility of being rebarbarized. There is no Misericordia
in England: and, except indeed for spiritual assistance, its humane
services are not needed; the prisoners are sufficiently fed and
clothed, and the law which punishes, allows every alleviation of
punishment which does not defeat the main end of justice.
Something of the spirit of this charitable institution was displayed by
an individual in the metropolis two centuries ago. He gave fifty
pounds to the parish in which the great prison is situated, on
condition that, for ever after, a man on the night preceding an
execution should go to Newgate in the dead of the night, and strike
with a hand-bell twelve tolls with double strokes, as near the cells of
the condemned criminals as possible,—then exhort them to
repentance. The great bell of the church was also to toll when they
were passing by on their way to execution, and the bellman was to
look over the wall and exhort all good people to pray to God for the
poor sinners who were going to suffer death. Robert Dew was the
name of this pious man: the church is dedicated to the Holy
Sepulchre, which these heretics have ingeniously converted into a
saint!
I need not tell you that the torture has long since been abolished
in England. In no other part of the world are laws so well executed;
crimes are never committed here with impunity;—there is no respect
of persons, justice is never defeated by delay, and the people are
not familiarised to cruelty by the sight of cruel punishments. The
effect of so familiarizing a nation has been dreadfully exemplified in
France. All history does not present a spectacle more inexpiably
disgraceful to the country in which it occurred, than the council of
surgeons assembled to fix the sentence of Damiens; a council
appointed by the king of France and his ministers, to discover in
what manner the poor madman could be made to feel the most
exquisite tortures, and kept alive as long as possible to endure them!
Louis XV. signed this sentence,—and then desired he might not be
told when it was to be executed,—because it would hurt his feelings!
The present king of England has, in like manner, twice escaped
death; and in both instances the unhappy persons concerned have
been lodged in the public hospital for the insane. Is there upon
record another contrast so striking between two neighbouring
nations?
Even however in England some improvements are still desirable in
criminal law. The principle of the law is, that every man shall be
presumed innocent till he is proved guilty; yet this principle is never
carried into effect, and the accused are confined in irons:—it is
necessary to secure them; but any rigour not absolutely necessary
for this purpose, is in manifest violation of this humane and just
axiom. A pleader should be permitted to defend the prisoner, as well
as one to accuse him; where the innocence of the prisoner is
proved, he ought to be indemnified for the losses he has sustained,
and the expenses he has incurred by his imprisonment and trial;
where he is convicted, the expense of bringing him to justice ought
to fall upon the public, not upon the individual prosecutor, already a
sufferer by the offence.

[9] Only for coining, and for murdering their husbands. The
author seems to have supposed it was always the case.—Tr.
 LETTER XL.
Voyage to Liverpool.—Filthy Custom at the Inns.—School of the
Blind.—Athenæum.—Mr Roscoe.—Journey to Kendal.
Wednesday, July 14.

We left Chester yesterday at noon, and embarked again upon a

canal. Our last navigation had ended by transferring us to a coach;
we had now to undergo a more unpleasant transfer. The canal
reached the Mersey, a huge river which forms the port of Liverpool,
across which we had about three leagues to sail in a slant direction.
A vessel was ready to receive us, on board of which we embarked,
and set sail with a slack wind. At first it was pleasant sailing,—the
day fair, a castellated hill in full view up the river, and Liverpool at a
distance, near to its mouth, upon the northern shore. But the wind
rose, the water became rough, there came on a gale from the west
with heavy rain, which drove us below deck, and then we were
driven up again by the stench of a close cabin, and the sickness of
women and children. The gale was so strong that we had reason to
be thankful for reaching the town in safety.
Immediately upon our landing we were surrounded by boys
proffering cards of the different inns by which they were employed
to look out for strangers, and contesting who should carry our
luggage. The rain continued, and confined us for the evening. They
have a filthy custom at the inns in England, that when you pull off
your boots, the man brings you a pair of old slippers, which serve for
all travellers, and indeed are frequently worn-out shoes with the
heels cut away: clean as the English are, this impropriety does not in
the slightest degree offend them.
The next morning we enquired for a gentleman with whom I had
been acquainted in London. A book containing the names and place
of abode of all the inhabitants is kept in every inn: so that there was
no difficulty in finding him out. With him we spent the day, and were
obliged to him for showing us whatever was most worthy of notice
in the town. There is no cathedral, no castle, gate, town-wall, or
monument of antiquity, no marks of decay. Every thing is the work
of late years, almost of the present generation.
There is but one fine street in the city, which is terminated by the
Exchange, a handsome structure; but as you look up the street to it,
it is not in the centre, and this irregularity produces a singularly
unpleasant effect. One side of the street, it seems, was built with
reference to this Exchange, and the other was to have corresponded
with it; but when the governors of the city came to purchase the
ground, some obstacles were discovered which had not been
foreseen. As there are few fine streets, so there are few which
display much poverty: this external appearance of prosperity is
purchased at a dear price; for the poor, as in Manchester, live mostly
in cellars, underground. The height of some of the warehouses
excited the wonder of my companion, and he expressed his surprise
that I should not be astonished at them also. In fact, old houses in
England are generally lower than modern ones, and even these have
never more than four floors. Yet the value of ground is prodigiously
great, and the island is not subject to earthquakes.
Here is a hospital for horses, of which the sign-board caught my
eye as we passed along. We visited a school for the blind, a sight as
interesting as it was melancholy. They make curtain lines by a
machine which a blind man contrived; list-slippers, which were an
invention of the French emigrants; baskets;—every thing, in short, in
which the sense of sight can be supplied by touch. It was surprising
to see them move about the room, steering clear of every thing as
surely as though they had seen what was before them,—as if they
had possessed that sixth sense, which experimental naturalists, the
most merciless of human beings, are said to have discovered in bats,
when they have put out their eyes for the sake of seeing how the
tortured animal can find its way without them. They sung a hymn for
our gratification: their voices were fine; and the deep attention
which was manifest in their eyeless faces, dead as they necessarily
were to all external objects which could distract them, was affecting
and even awful. Such as discover a taste for music are instructed in
it; and some have been thus enabled to support themselves as
organists in the churches, and by tuning instruments. The blind must
be very numerous in England, as I am told there are many such
institutions; but there is good reason to hope that the number will
be materially lessened in future by the vaccine inoculation, a very
large proportion of these poor sufferers having lost their eyes by the
smallpox.
Liverpool has become a place of great maritime trade, against
every natural disadvantage. The river is sheltered only from the
north, and at low-water sand-banks may be seen round its mouth
for leagues off in every direction. Vessels when leaving port easily
avoid them, because they start with a fair wind, but to returning
ships they are far more perilous. In spite of this, there is not any
other place where so much mercantile enterprise is displayed in
England, nor perhaps in the whole world.—Two ships came in while
we were upon the quay: it was a beautiful sight to see them enter
the docks and take their quiet station, a crowd flocking towards
them, some in curiosity to know what they were, others in hope and
in fear, hastening to see who had returned in them.
Fortunes are made here with a rapidity unexampled in any other
part of England. It is true that many adventurers fail; yet with all the
ups and downs of commercial speculation, Liverpool prospers
beyond all other ports. There is too a princely liberality in its
merchants, which, even in London, is not rivalled. Let any thing be
proposed for the advantage and ornament, or honour of the town,
however little akin it may be to their own pursuits, habits, and
feelings, they are ready with subscriptions to any amount. It has
lately been resolved upon to have a botanical garden here; a large
sum has been raised for the purpose, and the ground purchased. "It
will be long," said I to our friend, "before this can be brought to any
perfection." "Oh, sir," said he, with a smile of triumph which it was
delightful to perceive, "you do not know how we do things at
Liverpool. Money and activity work wonders. In half a dozen years
we shall have the finest in England."
The history of their Athenæum is a striking instance of their spirit:
—by this name they call a public library, with a reading-room for the
newspapers and other journals,—for all periodical publications,
whether daily, monthly, quarterly, or yearly, are called journals in
England. Two of the literary inhabitants were talking one day after
dinner of the want of a public library in the town, and they agreed to
call a meeting for the purpose of forming one. The meeting was
advertised,—they went to it,—and found themselves alone. "What
shall we do now?" said the one: "here is an end of the business."
"No," said his friend;—"take you the chair, I will be secretary; we will
draw up our resolutions unanimously, and advertise them." They did
so; and in four-and-twenty-hours sufficient funds were subscribed to
establish the finest institution of the kind in the kingdom.
Literature also flourishes as fairly as commerce. A history of
Lorenzo de Medici appeared here about eight years ago, which even
the Italians have thought worthy of translation. The libraries of
Florence were searched for materials for this work, and many
writings of Lorenzo himself first given to the world in Liverpool. This
work of Mr Roscoe's has diffused a general taste for the literature of
Italy. It has been said of men of letters, that, like prophets, they
have no honour in their own country; but to this saying, to which
there are so few exceptions, one honourable one is to be found
here. The people of Liverpool are proud of their townsman: whether
they read his book or not, they are sensible it has reflected honour
upon their town in the eyes of England and of Europe, and they
have a love and jealousy of its honour, which has seldom been found
any where except in those cities where that love was nationality,
because the city and the state were the same. This high and just
estimation of Mr Roscoe is the more praiseworthy, because he is
known to be an enemy to the slave-trade, the peculiar disgrace of
Liverpool.
 * * * * *

Thursday, 15.
We had choice of stage-coaches to Kendal, but it was only a
choice between two of the same sort, the long, coffin-shaped
machines, of which we had had so bad a sample between Worcester
and Birmingham. One of these we ascended at seven this morning
for a day's journey of twenty leagues. The outskirts of Liverpool
have an unsightly appearance,—new streets of houses for the poorer
classes, which bear no marks either of cleanliness or comfort, fields
cut up for the foundations of other buildings, brick yards, and kilns
smoking on every side. It was not easy to say where the town
ended; for the paved way, which in all other parts of England ends
with the town, continued here the whole stage, sorely to our
annoyance. We passed through Ormskirk, a town chiefly famous for
the preparation of a nostrum of more repute than efficacy against
hydrophobia, and breakfasted a stage beyond it, at a single inn
beside a bridge, the worst and dirtiest house of entertainment which
I have yet seen in England. Sometimes we had a view of the sea
towards Ireland; but the country was flat and unpleasant, and the
trees all blighted and stunted in their growth; they seemed to have
shrunk and twisted themselves to avoid the severity of the sea-
blasts.
Preston was the next stage, a large manufacturing town: before
we entered it we crossed the river Ribble by a good bridge, and
immediately ascended a long hill,—it was the only pleasant spot
which we had seen upon the way. Near this place an officer once
met his death in battle by a singular accident. His horse upon some
disgust he took at the guns, as the old writer oddly expresses it, ran
off and leapt a ditch; the man's sword fell, and at the same minute
he was thrown upon its point, and it ran him through. There is a
spring about three leagues from hence, the water of which will burn
with a blue flame like spirits of wine. Beyond Preston the roads were
good, and the country also improved. We changed horses again at
Garstang, a little town where the picture over the inn door caught
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