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 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

Chapter 6

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. One or more objects may be created from a(n):

a. field
b. class
c. method
d. instance

ANS: B

2. Class objects normally have __________ that perform useful operations on their data, but primitive variables do
not.
a. fields
b. instances
c. methods
d. relationships

ANS: C

3. In the cookie cutter metaphor, think of the ________ as a cookie cutter and ________ as the cookies.
a. object; classes
b. class; objects
c. class; fields
d. attribute; methods

ANS: B

4. Which of the following are classes from the Java API?

a. Scanner
b. Random
c. PrintWriter
d. All of the above

ANS: D

5. When you are working with a ____________, you are using a storage location that holds a piece of data.
a. primitive variable
b. reference variable
c. numeric literal
d. binary number

ANS: A

6. What is stored by a reference variable?

a. A binary encoded decimal
b. A memory address
c. An object
d. A string
 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

ANS: B

7. Most programming languages that are in use today are:

a. procedural
b. logic
c. object-oriented
d. functional

ANS: C

8. Java allows you to create objects of this class in the same way you would create primitive variables.
a. Random
b. String
c. PrintWriter
d. Scanner

ANS: B

9. A UML diagram does not contain:

a. the class name.
b. the method names.
c. the field names.
d. object names

ANS: D

10. Data hiding, which means that critical data stored inside the object is protected from code outside the object, is
accomplished in Java by:
a. using the public access specifier on the class methods
b. using the private access specifier on the class methods
c. using the private access specifier on the class definition
d. using the private access specifier on the class fields

ANS: D

11. For the following code, which statement is not true?

public class Sphere

{
private double radius;
public double x;
private double y;
private double z;
}

a. x is available to code that is written outside the Circle class.

b. radius is not available to code written outside the Circle class.
c. radius, x, y, and z are called members of the Circle class.
d. z is available to code that is written outside the Circle class.
 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

ANS: D

12. You should not define a class field that is dependent upon the values of other class fields:
a. in order to avoid having stale data
b. because it is redundant
c. because it should be defined in another class
d. in order to keep it current

ANS: A

13. What does the following UML diagram entry mean?

+ setHeight(h : double) : void

a. this is a public attribute named Height and is a double data type

b. this is a private method with no parameters and returns a double data type
c. this is a private attribute named Height and is a double data type
d. this is a public method with a parameter of data type double and does not return a value

ANS: D

14. Methods that operate on an object's fields are called:

a. instance variables
b. instance methods
c. public methods
d. private methods

ANS: B

15. The scope of a private instance field is:

a. the instance methods of the same class
b. inside the class, but not inside any method
c. inside the parentheses of a method header
d. the method in which they are defined

ANS: A

16. A constructor:
a. always accepts two arguments
b. has return type of void
c. has the same name as the class
d. always has an access specifier of private

ANS: C

17. Which of the following statements will create a reference, str, to the String, “Hello, World”?
a. String str = "Hello, World";
b. string str = "Hello, World";
c. String str = new "Hello, World";
d. str = "Hello, World";
 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

ANS: A

18. Two or more methods in a class may have the same name as long as:
a. they have different return types
b. they have different parameter lists
c. they have different return types, but the same parameter list
d. you cannot have two methods with the same name

ANS: B

19. Given the following code, what will be the value of finalAmount when it is displayed?

public class Order

{
private int orderNum;
private double orderAmount;
private double orderDiscount;

public Order(int orderNumber, double orderAmt,

double orderDisc)
{
orderNum = orderNumber;
orderAmount = orderAmt;
orderDiscount = orderDisc;
}
public int getOrderAmount()
{
return orderAmount;
}
public int getOrderDisc()
{
return orderDisc;
}
}

public class CustomerOrder

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int ordNum = 1234;
double ordAmount = 580.00;
double discountPer = .1;
Order order;
double finalAmount = order.getOrderAmount() –
order.getOrderAmount() * order.getOrderDisc();
System.out.println("Final order amount = $" +
finalAmount);
}
}
a. 528.00
b. 580.00
c. There is no value because the constructor has an error.
d. There is no value because the object order has not been created.
 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

ANS: D

20. A class specifies the ________ and ________ that a particular type of object has.
a. relationships; methods
b. fields; object names
c. fields; methods
d. relationships; object names

ANS: C

21. This refers to the combining of data and code into a single object.
a. Data hiding
b. Abstraction
c. Object
d. Encapsulation

ANS: D

22. Another term for an object of a class is

a. access specifier
b. instance
c. member
d. method

ANS: B

23. In your textbook the general layout of a UML diagram is a box that is divided into three sections. The top
section has the _______; the middle section holds _______; the bottom section holds _______.
a. class name; attributes or fields; methods
b. class name; object name; methods
c. object name; attributes or fields; methods
d. object name; methods; attributes or fields

ANS: A

24. For the following code, which statement is not true?

public class Circle

{
private double radius;
public double x;
private double y;
}

a. x is available to code that is written outside the Circle class.

b. radius is not available to code written outside the Circle class.
c. radius, x, and y are called members of the Circle class.
d. y is available to code that is written outside the Circle class.

ANS: D

25. It is common practice in object-oriented programming to make all of a class's

 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

a. methods private
b. fields private
c. fields public
d. fields and methods public

ANS: B

26. After the header, the body of the method appears inside a set of:
a. brackets, []
b. parentheses, ()
c. braces, {}
d. double quotes, ""

ANS: C

27. In UML diagrams, this symbol indicates that a member is private:

a. *
b. #
c. -
d. +

ANS: C

28. In UML diagrams, this symbol indicates that a member is public.

a. /
b. @
c. -
d. +

ANS: D

29. In a UML diagram to indicate the data type of a variable enter:

a. the variable name followed by the data type
b. the variable name followed by a colon and the data type
c. the class name followed by the variable name followed by the data type
d. the data type followed by the variable name

ANS: B

30. When an object is created, the attributes associated with the object are called:
a. instance fields
b. instance methods
c. fixed attributes
d. class instances

ANS: A

31. When an object is passed as an argument to a method, what is passed into the method’s parameter variable?
a. the class name
b. the object’s memory address
 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

c. the values for each field

d. the method names

ANS: B

32. A constructor is a method that:

a. returns an object of the class.
b. never receives any arguments.
c. with the name ClassName.constructor.
d. performs initialization or setup operations.

ANS: D

33. The scope of a public instance field is:

a. only the class in which it is defined
b. inside the class, but not inside any method
c. inside the parentheses of a method header
d. the instance methods and methods outside the class

ANS: D

34. Which of the following statements will create a reference, str, to the string, “Hello, world”?

(1) String str = new String("Hello, world");

(2) String str = "Hello, world";

a. 1
b. 2
c. 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 or 2

ANS: C

35. Overloading means multiple methods in the same class

a. have the same name, but different return types
b. have different names, but the same parameter list
c. have the same name, but different parameter lists
d. perform the same function

ANS: C

36. Given the following code, what will be the value of finalAmount when it is displayed?

public class Order

{
private int orderNum;
private double orderAmount;
private double orderDiscount;

public Order(int orderNumber, double orderAmt,

double orderDisc)
{
 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

orderNum = orderNumber;
orderAmount = orderAmt;
orderDiscount = orderDisc;
}

public double finalOrderTotal()

{
return orderAmount - orderAmount *
orderDiscount;
}
}

public class CustomerOrder

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Order order;
int orderNumber = 1234;
double orderAmt = 580.00;
double orderDisc = .1;
order = new Order(orderNumber, orderAmt, orderDisc);
double finalAmount = order.finalOrderTotal();
System.out.println("Final order amount = $" +
finalAmount);
}
}
a. 528.00
b. 580.00
c. 522.00
d. There is no value because the object order has not been created.

ANS: C

37. A class’s responsibilities include:

a. the things a class is responsible for doing c. both A and B

b. the things a class is responsible for knowing d. neither A or B

ANS: C

38. Instance methods do not have this key word in their headers:
a. public
b. static
c. private
d. protected

ANS: B

39. Which of the following is not involved in finding the classes when developing an object-oriented application?

a. Describe the problem domain. c. Write the code.

b. Identify all the nouns. d. Refine the list of nouns to include only those
that are relevant to the problem.
 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

ANS: C

40. This is a group of related classes.

a. archive c. collection
b. package d. attachment

ANS: B

41. Quite often you have to use this statement to make a group of classes available to a program.

a. import c. link
b. use d. assume

ANS: A

42. Look at the following statement.

import java.util.Scanner;

This is an example of

a. a wildcard import c. unconditional import

b. an explicit import d. conditional import

ANS: B

43. Look at the following statement.

import java.util.*;

This is an example of:

a. a wildcard import c. unconditional import

b. an explicit import d. conditional import

ANS: A

44. The following package is automatically imported into all Java programs.

a. java.java c. java.util
b. java.default d. java.lang

ANS: D

TRUE/FALSE

1. An object can store data.

ANS: T
 Gaddis: Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Objects, 5/e © 2012 Pearson Education

2. A class in not an object, but a description of an object.

ANS: T

3. An access specifier indicates how the class may be accessed.

ANS: T

4. A method that stores a value in a class's field or in some other way changes the value of a field is known as a
mutator method.

ANS: T

5. Instance methods should be declared static.

ANS: F

6. A constructor is a method that is automatically called when an object is created.

ANS: T

7. Shadowing is the term used to describe where the field name is hidden by the name of a local or parameter
variable.

ANS: T

8. The public access specifier for a field indicates that the attribute may not be accessed by statements outside
the class.

ANS: F

9. A method that gets a value from a class's field but does not change it is known as a mutator method.

ANS: F

10. Instance methods do not have the key word static in their headers.

ANS: T

11. The term "default constructor" is applied to the first constructor written by the author of a class.

ANS: F

12. When a local variable in an instance method has the same name as an instance field, the instance field hides the
local variable.

ANS: F

13. The term "no-arg constructor" is applied to any constructor that does not accept arguments.

ANS: T

14. The java.lang package is automatically imported into all Java programs.

ANS: T
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thunderstorm. The sparks of home-made lightning will jump several
inches.
Do not think that electricity is generated in a commercial way by
static electric machines. The practical uses of static electricity are
very few when compared with those of current electricity from
batteries and dynamos.
15. Condensation of Static Electricity. By means of
apparatus called condensers, a terrific charge of static electricity may
be stored. Fig. 11 shows the most common form of condenser,
known as the Leyden jar. It consists of a glass jar with an inside and
outside coating of tin-foil.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 11.

To charge the jar it is held in the hand so that the outside coating
shall be connected with the earth, the sparks from an electric
machine being passed to the knob at the top, which is connected by
a chain to the inside coating.
To discharge the jar, Fig. 12, a conductor with an insulating
handle is placed against the outside coat; when the other end of the
conductor is swung over towards the knob, a bright spark passes
between them. This device is called a discharger. Fig. 13 shows a
discharge through ether which the spark ignites.

Fig. 13.

16. The Leyden Battery, Fig. 14, consists of several jars

connected in such a way that the area of the inner and outer
coatings is greatly increased. The battery has a larger capacity than
one of its jars. (For Experiments in Condensation, see "Study,"
Chapter X.)

Fig. 14.
 17. Electromotive Force of
Static Electricity. Although the
sparks of static electricity are large,
the quantity of electricity is very
small. It would take thousands of
galvanic cells to produce a spark an
inch long. While the quantity of
static electricity is small, its
potential, or electromotive force (E.
M. F.), is very high. We say that an
ordinary gravity cell has an E. M. F.
of a little over one volt. Five such
cells joined in the proper way would
have an E. M. F. of a little over five
volts. You will understand, then, Fig. 15.
what is meant when we say that the
E. M. F. of a lightning flash is millions
of volts.
18. Atmospheric Electricity. The air is usually electrified, even
in clear weather, although its cause is not thoroughly understood. In
1752 it was proved by Benjamin Franklin (Fig. 15), with his famous
kite experiment, that atmospheric and frictional electricities are of
the same nature. By means of a kite, the string being wet by the
rain, he succeeded, during a thunderstorm, in drawing sparks,
charging condensers, etc.
19. Lightning may be produced by
the passage of electricity between
clouds, or between a cloud and the
earth (Fig. 16), which, with the
intervening air, have the effect of a
condenser. When the attraction
between the two electrifications gets
great enough, a spark passes. When
the spark has a zigzag motion it is
 Fig. 16. called chain lightning. In hot weather
flashes are often seen which light
whole clouds, no thunder being heard. This is called heat lightning,
and is generally considered to be due to distant discharges, the light
of which is reflected by the clouds. The lightning flash represents
billions of volts.

Fig. 17.
 20. Thunder is caused by the violent disturbances produced in
the air by lightning. Clouds, hills, etc., produce echoes, which, with
the original sound, make the rolling effect.
21. Lightning-Rods, when well constructed, often prevent
violent discharges. Their pointed prongs at the top allow the
negative electricity of the earth to pass quietly into the air to
neutralize the positive in the cloud above. In case of a discharge, or
stroke of lightning, the rods aid in conducting the electricity to the
earth. The ends of the rods are placed deep in the earth, Fig. 17.
22. St. Elmo's Fire. Electrification from the earth is often drawn
up from the earth through the masts of ships, Fig. 18, to neutralize
that in the clouds, and, as it escapes from the points of the masts,
light is produced.
 Fig. 18.

23. Aurora Borealis, also called Northern Lights, are luminous

effects, Fig. 19, often seen in the north. They often occur at the
same time with magnetic storms, when telegraph and telephone
work may be disturbed. The exact cause of this light is not known,
but it is thought by many to be due to disturbances in the earth's
magnetism caused by the action of the sun.
Fig. 19.
 CHAPTER II.
ABOUT MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM.

24. Natural Magnets. Hundreds of years ago it was

discovered that a certain ore of iron, called lodestone,
had the power of picking up small pieces of iron. It was
used to indicate the north and south line, and it was
discovered later that small pieces of steel could be
permanently magnetized by rubbing them upon the
lodestone.
25. Artificial Magnets. Pieces of steel, when Fig. 20
magnetized, are called artificial magnets. They are
made in many forms. The electromagnet is also an artificial magnet;
this will be treated separately.
26. The Horseshoe Magnet, Fig. 20, is, however, the one with
which we are the most familiar. They are always painted red, but the
red paint has nothing to do with the magnetism.

Fig. 21.

The little end-piece is called the keeper, or armature; it should

always be kept in place when the magnet is not in use. The magnet
itself is made of steel, while the armature is made of soft iron. Steel
retains magnetism for a long time, while soft iron loses it almost
instantly. The ends of the magnet are called its poles, and nearly all
the strength of the magnet seems to reside at the poles, the curved
part having no attraction for outside bodies. One of the poles of the
 magnet is marked with a line, or with the letter N.
This is called the north pole of the magnet, the
other being its south pole.
27. Bar Magnets are straight magnets. Fig. 21
shows a round bar magnet. The screw in the end is
for use in the telephone, described later.
28. Compound Magnets. When several thin
steel magnets are riveted together, a compound
magnet is formed. These can be made with
considerable strength. Fig. 22 shows a compound
horseshoe magnet. Fig. 23 shows a form of
compound bar magnet used in telephones. The use
of the coil of wire will be explained later. A thick
piece of steel can not be magnetized through and
through. In the compound magnet we have the
Fig. 22. effect of a thick magnet practically magnetized
through and through.

Fig. 23.

29. Magnetic and Diamagnetic Bodies. Iron, and substances

containing iron, are the ones most readily attracted by a magnet.
Iron is said to be magnetic. Some substances, like nickel, for
example, are visibly attracted by very strong magnets only. Strange
as it may seem, some substances are actually repelled by strong
magnets; these are called diamagnetic bodies. Brass, copper, zinc,
etc., are not visibly affected by a magnet. Magnetism will act
through paper, glass, copper, lead, etc.
 Fig. 24.

30. Making Magnets. One of the strangest properties that a

magnet has is its power to give magnetism to another piece of steel.
If a sewing-needle be properly rubbed upon one of the poles of a
magnet, it will become strongly magnetized and will retain its
magnetism for years. Strong permanent magnets are made with the
aid of electromagnets. Any number of little magnets may be made
from a horseshoe magnet without injuring it.

Fig. 25.

31. Magnetic Needles and Compasses. If a bar magnet be

suspended by a string, or floated upon a cork, which can easily be
done with the magnet made from a sewing-needle, Fig. 24, it will
swing around until its poles point north and south. Such an
arrangement is called a magnetic needle. In the regular compass, a
magnetic needle is supported upon a pivot. Compasses have been
used for many centuries by mariners and others. Fig. 25 shows an
ordinary pocket compass, and Fig. 26 a form of mariner's compass,
in which the small bar magnets are fastened to a card which floats,
the whole being so mounted that it keeps a horizontal position, even
though the vessel rocks.

Fig. 26.

32. Action of Magnets Upon Each Other. By making two

small sewing-needle magnets, you can easily study the laws of
attraction and repulsion. By bringing the two north poles, or the two
south poles, near each other, a repulsion will be noticed. Unlike poles
attract each other. The attraction between a magnet and iron is
mutual; that is, each attracts the other. Either pole of a magnet
attracts soft iron.
 In magnetizing a needle, either end may be made a north pole at
will; in fact, the poles of a weak magnet can easily be reversed by
properly rubbing it upon a stronger magnet.
33. Theory of Magnetism. Each little particle of a piece of steel
or iron is supposed to be a magnet, even before it touches a
magnet. When these little magnets are thoroughly mixed up in the
steel, they pull in all sorts of directions upon each other and tend to
keep the steel from attracting outside bodies. When a magnet is
properly rubbed upon a bar of steel, the north poles of the little
molecular magnets of the steel are all made to point in the same
direction. As the north poles help each other, the whole bar can
attract outside bodies.
By jarring a magnet its molecules are thoroughly shaken up; in
fact, most of the magnetism can be knocked out of a weak magnet
by hammering it.
34. Retentivity. The power that a piece of steel has to hold
magnetism is called retentivity. Different kinds of steel have different
retentivities. A sewing-needle of good steel will retain magnetism for
years, and it is almost impossible to knock the magnetism out by
hammering it. Soft steel has very little retentivity, because it does
not contain much carbon. Soft iron, which contains less carbon than
steel, holds magnetism very poorly; so it is not used for permanent
magnets. A little magnetism, however, will remain in the soft iron
after it is removed from a magnet. This is called residual magnetism.
35. Heat and Magnetism. Steel will completely lose its
magnetism when heated to redness, and a magnet will not attract
red-hot iron. The molecules of a piece of red-hot iron are in such a
state of rapid vibration that they refuse to be brought into line by
the magnet.
36. Induced Magnetism. A piece of soft iron may be induced
to become a magnet by holding it near a magnet, absolute contact
not being necessary. When the soft iron is removed, again, from the
 influence of the magnet, its
magnetism nearly all
disappears. It is said to have
temporary magnetism; it had
induced magnetism. If a piece
of soft iron be held near the
north pole of a magnet, as in
Fig. 27, poles will be produced
in the soft iron, the one
nearest the magnet being the
south pole, and the other the
north pole.

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

37. Magnetic Field. If a bar magnet be laid upon the table, and
a compass be moved about it, the compass-needle will be attracted
by the magnet, and it will point in a different direction for every
position given to the compass. This strange power, called
magnetism, reaches out on all sides of a magnet. The magnet may
be said to act by induction upon the compass-needle. The space
around the magnet, in which this inductive action takes place, is
called the magnetic field. Fig. 28 shows some of the positions taken
by a compass-needle when moved about on one side of a bar
magnet.
 Fig. 29. Fig. 30.

38. Magnetic Figures can be made by sprinkling iron filings

upon a sheet of paper under which is placed a magnet. Fig. 29
shows a magnetic figure made with an ordinary bar magnet. The
magnet was placed upon the table and over this was laid a piece of
smooth paper. Fine iron filings were sifted upon the paper, which
was gently tapped so that the filings could arrange themselves. As
each particle of iron became a little magnet, by induction, its poles
were attracted and repelled by the magnet; and when the paper was
tapped they swung around to their final positions. Notice that the
filings have arranged themselves in lines. These lines show the
positions of some of the lines of magnetic force which surrounded
the magnet.
These lines of force pass from the north pole of a magnet through
the air on all sides to its south pole.
Fig. 30 shows a magnetic figure
made from two bar magnets placed
side by side, their unlike poles being
next to each other. Fig. 31 shows the
magnetic figure of a horseshoe
magnet with round poles, the poles
being uppermost.
39. The Use of Armatures. A
magnet attracts iron most strongly at
its poles, because it is at the poles
that the greatest number of lines of
force pass into the air. Lines of force
pass easily through soft iron, which is
said to be a good conductor of them.
Air is not a good conductor of the
lines of force; in order, then, for the
lines of force to pass from the north
pole of a magnet to its south pole,
they must overcome this resistance of
the air, unless the armature is in
place. A magnet will gradually grow
weaker when its armature is left off.
40. Terrestrial Magnetism. As
the compass-needle points to the
north and south, the earth must act
Fig. 31.
like a magnet. There is a place very
far north, about a thousand miles
from the north pole of the earth, which is called the earth's north
magnetic pole. Compass-needles point to this place, and not to the
earth's real north pole. You can see, then, that if a compass be
taken north of this magnetic pole, its north pole will point south.
Lines of force pass from the earth's north magnetic pole through the
air on all sides of the earth and enter the earth's south magnetic
pole. The compass-needle, in pointing toward the north magnetic
pole, merely takes the direction of the earth's lines of force, just as
the particles of iron filings arrange themselves in the magnetic
figures.
41. Declination. As the magnetic needle does not point exactly
to the north, an angle is formed between the true north and south
line and the line of the needle. In Fig. 32 the line marked N S is the
true north and south line. The angle of variation, or the declination,
is the angle A between the line N S and the compass-needle.

Fig. 33.

Fig. 32.

42. Dip or Inclination. If a piece of steel be carefully balanced

upon a support, and then magnetized, it will be found that it will no
longer balance. The north pole will dip or point downward. Fig. 33
shows what happens to a needle when it is held in different
positions over a bar magnet. It simply takes the directions of the
lines of force as they pass from the north to the south pole of the
magnet. As the earth's lines of force pass in curves from the north to
the south magnetic pole, you can see why the magnetic needle dips,
unless its south pole is made heavier than its north. Magnetic
needles are balanced after they are magnetized.
 Fig. 34 shows a simple form
of dipping needle. These are
often used by geologists and
miners. In the hands of the
prospector, the miner's
compass, or dipping needle,
proves a serviceable guide to
the discovery and location of
magnetic iron ore. In this
instrument the magnetic needle
is carefully balanced upon a
horizontal axis within a
graduated circle, and in which
the needle will be found to
assume a position inclined to
the horizon. This angle of Fig. 34.
deviation is called the
inclination or dip, and varies in
different latitudes, and even at different times in the same place.
43. The Earth's Inductive Influence. The earth's magnetism
acts inductively upon pieces of steel or iron upon its surface. If a
piece of steel or iron, like a stove poker, for example, be held in a
north and south line with its north end dipping considerably, it will
be in the best position for the magnetism of the earth to act upon it;
that is, it will lie in the direction taken by the earth's lines of force. If
the poker be struck two or three times with a hammer to shake up
its molecules, we shall find, upon testing it, that it has become
magnetized. By this method we can pound magnetism right out of
the air with a hammer. If the magnetized poker be held level, in an
east and west direction, it will no longer be acted upon to advantage
by the inductive influence of the earth, and we can easily hammer
the magnetism out of it again. (For experiments on magnets and
magnetism see "Study," Part I.)
 CHAPTER III.
HOW ELECTRICITY IS GENERATED BY THE
VOLTAIC CELL.

44. Early
Experiments. In 1786
Galvani, an Italian
physician, made
experiments to study
the effect of static
electricity upon the
nervous excitability of
animals, and especially
upon the frog. He found
that electric machines
were not necessary to
produce muscular
contractions or kicks of
the frog's legs, and that
they could be produced
when two different
metals, Fig. 35, like iron
and copper, for example, Fig. 35.
were placed in proper
contact with a nerve and
a muscle and then made to touch each other. Galvani first thought
that the frog generated the electricity instead of the metals.
Volta proved that the electricity was caused by the contact of the
metals. He used the condensing electroscope as one means of
proving that two dissimilar metals become charged differently when
in contact. Volta also carried out his belief by constructing what is
called a Voltaic Pile. He thought that by making several pairs of
metals so arranged that all the little currents would help each other,
a strong current could be generated. Fig. 36 shows a pile, it being
made by placing a pair of zinc and copper discs in contact with one
another, then laying on the copper disc a piece of flannel soaked in
brine, then on top of this another pair, etc., etc. By connecting the
first zinc and the last copper, quite a little current was produced.
This was a start from which has been built our present knowledge of
electricity. Strictly speaking, electricity is not generated by
combinations of metals or by cells; they really keep up a difference
of potential, as will be seen.
 Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.

45. The Simple Cell. It has been stated that two different kinds
of electrifications may be produced by friction; one positive, the
other negative. Either can be produced, at will, by using proper
materials. Fig. 37 shows a section of a simple cell; Fig. 38 shows
another view. Cu is a piece of copper, and Zn a piece of zinc. When
they are placed in dilute sulphuric acid, it can be shown by delicate
apparatus that they become charged differently, because the acid
acts differently upon the plates. They become charged by chemical
action, and not by friction. The zinc is gradually dissolved, and it is
this chemical burning of the zinc that furnishes energy for the
electric current in the simple cell. The electrification, or charge, on
the plates tends to flow from the place of higher to the place of
lower potential, just as water tends to flow down hill. If a wire be
joined to the two metals, a constant current of electricity will flow
through it, because the acid continues to act upon the plates. The
simple cell is a single-fluid cell, as but one liquid is used in its
construction.
45a. Plates and Poles. The metal strips used in voltaic cells are
called plates or elements. The one most acted upon by the acid is
called the positive (+) plate. In the simple cell the zinc is the +
plate, and the copper the negative (-) plate. The end of a wire
attached to the - plate is called the + pole, or electrode. Fig. 37
shows the negative (-) electrode as the end of the wire attached to
the + plate.
46. Direction of Current. In the cell the current passes from
the zinc to the copper; that is, from the positive to the negative
plate, where bubbles of hydrogen gas are deposited. In the wire
connecting the plates, the current passes from the copper to the zinc
plate. In most cells, carbon takes the place of copper. (See "Study,"
§ 268.)
47. Local Currents; Amalgamation. Ordinary zinc contains
impurities such as carbon, iron, etc., and when the acid comes in
contact with these, they form with the zinc a small cell. This tends to
eat away the zinc without producing useful currents. The little
currents in the cell from this cause are called local currents. (See
"Study," Exp. 111, § 273.) This is largely overcome by coating the
zinc with mercury. This process is called amalgamation. It makes the
zinc act like pure zinc, which is not acted upon by dilute sulphuric
acid when the current does not pass. (See "Study," § 257, 274.)
48. Polarization of Cells. Bubbles of hydrogen gas are formed
when zinc is dissolved by an acid. In the ordinary simple cell these
bubbles collect on the copper plate, and not on the zinc plate, as
might be expected. The hydrogen is not a conductor of electricity, so
this film of gas holds the current back. The hydrogen acts like a
metal and sets up a current that opposes the zinc to the copper
current. Several methods are employed to get rid of the hydrogen.
(See "Study," § 278, 279, 280.)
 CHAPTER IV.
VARIOUS VOLTAIC CELLS.

49. Single-Fluid and Two-Fluid Cells. The simple cell (§ 45) is

a single-fluid cell. The liquid is called the electrolyte, and this must
act upon one of the plates; that is, chemical action must take place
in order to produce a current. The simple cell polarizes rapidly, so
something must be used with the dilute sulphuric acid to destroy the
hydrogen bubbles. This is done in the bichromate of potash cell.
In order to get complete depolarization—that is, to keep the
carbon plate almost perfectly free from hydrogen, it is necessary to
use two-fluid cells, or those to which some solid depolarizer is added
to the one fluid.
50. Open and Closed Circuit Cells. If we consider a voltaic
cell, the wires attached to it, and perhaps some instrument through
which the current passes, we have an electric circuit. When the
current passes, the circuit is closed, but when the wire is cut, or in
any way disconnected so that the current can not pass, the circuit is
open or broken. (See "Study," § 266.)
Open Circuit Cells are those which can give momentary currents
at intervals, such as are needed for bells, telephones, etc. These
must have plenty of time to rest, as they polarize when the circuit is
closed for a long time. The Leclanché and dry cells are the most
common open circuit cells.
Closed Circuit Cells. For telegraph lines, motors, etc., where a
current is needed for some time, the cell must be of such a nature
that it will not polarize quickly; it must give a strong and constant
current. The bichromate and gravity cells are examples of this
variety. (See "Study," § 286.)
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