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Starting Out with Java: From Control Structures through Data Structures 3e (Gaddis and Muganda)
Chapter 6 A First Look at Classes

6.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) One or more objects may be created from a(n):

A) field
B) class
C) method
D) instance
Answer: B

2) Class objects normally have ________ that perform useful operations on their data, but primitive
variables do not.
A) fields
B) instances
C) methods
D) relationships
Answer: C

3) In the cookie cutter metaphor, think of the ________ as a cookie cutter and ________ as the cookies.
A) object; classes
B) class; objects
C) class; fields
D) attribute; methods
Answer: B

4) Which of the following are classes from the Java API?

A) Scanner
B) Random
C) PrintWriter
D) All of the above
Answer: D

5) When you are working with a ________, you are using a storage location that holds a piece of data.
A) primitive variable
B) reference variable
C) numeric literal
D) binary number
Answer: A

6) What is stored by a reference variable?

A) A binary encoded decimal
B) A memory address
C) An object
D) A string
Answer: B

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7) Most programming languages that are in use today are:
A) procedural
B) logic
C) object-oriented
D) functional
Answer: C

8) Java allows you to create objects of this class in the same way you would create primitive variables.
A) Random
B) String
C) PrintWriter
D) Scanner
Answer: B

9) A UML diagram does not contain:

A) the class name
B) the method names
C) the field names
D) object names
Answer: D

10) Data hiding, which means that critical data stored inside the object is protected from code outside the
object, is accomplished in Java by:
A) using the public access specifier on the class methods
B) using the private access specifier on the class methods
C) using the private access specifier on the class definition
D) using the private access specifier on the class fields
Answer: D

11) For the following code, which statement is NOT true?

public class Sphere

{
private double radius;
public double x;
private double y;
private double z;
}
A) x is available to code that is written outside the Circle class.
B) radius is not available to code written outside the Circle class.
C) radius, x, y, and z are called members of the Circle class.
D) z is available to code that is written outside the Circle class.
Answer: D

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Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
12) You should not define a class field that is dependent upon the values of other class fields:
A) in order to avoid having stale data
B) because it is redundant
C) because it should be defined in another class
D) in order to keep it current
Answer: A

13) What does the following UML diagram entry mean?

+ setHeight(h : double) : void

A) this is a public attribute named Height and is a double data type
B) this is a private method with no parameters and returns a double data type
C) this is a private attribute named Height and is a double data type
D) this is a public method with a parameter of data type double and does not return a value
Answer: D

14) Methods that operate on an object's fields are called:

A) instance variables
B) instance methods
C) public methods
D) private methods
Answer: B

15) The scope of a private instance field is:

A) the instance methods of the same class
B) inside the class, but not inside any method
C) inside the parentheses of a method header
D) the method in which they are defined
Answer: A

16) A constructor:
A) always accepts two arguments
B) has return type of void
C) has the same name as the class
D) always has an access specifier of private
Answer: C

17) Which of the following statements will create a reference, str, to the String, "Hello, World"?
A) String str = "Hello, World";
B) string str = "Hello, World";
C) String str = new "Hello, World";
D) str = "Hello, World";
Answer: A

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18) Two or more methods in a class may have the same name as long as:
A) they have different return types
B) they have different parameter lists
C) they have different return types, but the same parameter list
D) you cannot have two methods with the same name
Answer: B

19) Given the following code, what will be the value of finalAmount when it is displayed?

public class Order

{
private int orderNum;
private double orderAmount;
private double orderDiscount;

public Order(int orderNumber, double orderAmt,

double orderDisc)
{
orderNum = orderNumber;
orderAmount = orderAmt;
orderDiscount = orderDisc;
}
public int getOrderAmount()
{
return orderAmount;
}
public int getOrderDisc()
{
return orderDisc;
}
}

public class CustomerOrder

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int ordNum = 1234;
double ordAmount = 580.00;
double discountPer = .1;
Order order;
double finalAmount = order.getOrderAmount() —
order.getOrderAmount() * order.getOrderDisc();
System.out.printf("Final order amount = $%,.2f\n",
finalAmount);
}
}
A) 528.00
B) 580.00
C) There is no value because the constructor has an error.
D) There is no value because the object order has not been created.
Answer: D

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20) A class specifies the ________ and ________ that a particular type of object has.
A) relationships; methods
B) fields; object names
C) fields; methods
D) relationships; object names
Answer: C

21) This refers to the combining of data and code into a single object.
A) Data hiding
B) Abstraction
C) Object
D) Encapsulation
Answer: D

22) Another term for an object of a class is:

A) access specifier
B) instance
C) member
D) method
Answer: B

23) In your textbook the general layout of a UML diagram is a box that is divided into three sections. The
top section has the ________; the middle section holds ________; the bottom section holds ________.
A) class name; attributes or fields; methods
B) class name; object name; methods
C) object name; attributes or fields; methods
D) object name; methods; attributes or fields
Answer: A

24) For the following code, which statement is NOT true?

public class Circle

{
private double radius;
public double x;
private double y;
}
A) x is available to code that is written outside the Circle class.
B) radius is not available to code written outside the Circle class.
C) radius, x, and y are called members of the Circle class.
D) y is available to code that is written outside the Circle class.
Answer: D

25) It is common practice in object-oriented programming to make all of a class's:

A) methods private
B) fields private
C) fields public
D) fields and methods public
Answer: B

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26) After the header, the body of the method appears inside a set of:
A) brackets, []
B) parentheses, ()
C) braces, {}
D) double quotes, ""
Answer: C

27) In UML diagrams, this symbol indicates that a member is private:

A) *
B) #
C) -
D) +
Answer: C

28) In UML diagrams, this symbol indicates that a member is public.

A) /
B) @
C) -
D) +
Answer: D

29) In a UML diagram to indicate the data type of a variable enter:

A) the variable name followed by the data type
B) the variable name followed by a colon and the data type
C) the class name followed by the variable name followed by the data type
D) the data type followed by the variable name
Answer: B

30) When an object is created, the attributes associated with the object are called:
A) instance fields
B) instance methods
C) fixed attributes
D) class instances
Answer: A

31) When an object is passed as an argument to a method, what is passed into the method's parameter
variable?
A) the class name
B) the object's memory address
C) the values for each field
D) the method names
Answer: B

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32) A constructor is a method that:
A) returns an object of the class.
B) never receives any arguments.
C) with the name ClassName.constructor.
D) performs initialization or setup operations.
Answer: D

33) The scope of a public instance field is:

A) only the class in which it is defined
B) inside the class, but not inside any method
C) inside the parentheses of a method header
D) the instance methods and methods outside the class
Answer: D

34) Which of the following statements will create a reference, str, to the string, "Hello, world"?

(1) String str = new String("Hello, world");

(2) String str = "Hello, world";
A) 1
B) 2
C) 1 and 2
D) neither 1 or 2
Answer: C

35) Overloading means multiple methods in the same class:

A) have the same name, but different return types
B) have different names, but the same parameter list
C) have the same name, but different parameter lists
D) perform the same function
Answer: C

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36) Given the following code, what will be the value of finalAmount when it is displayed?

public class Order

{
private int orderNum;
private double orderAmount;
private double orderDiscount;

public Order(int orderNumber, double orderAmt,

double orderDisc)
{
orderNum = orderNumber;
orderAmount = orderAmt;
orderDiscount = orderDisc;
}

public double finalOrderTotal()

{
return orderAmount - orderAmount *
orderDiscount;
}
}

public class CustomerOrder

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Order order;
int orderNumber = 1234;
double orderAmt = 580.00;
double orderDisc = .1;
order = new Order(orderNumber, orderAmt, orderDisc);
double finalAmount = order.finalOrderTotal();
System.out.printf("Final order amount = $%,.2f\n",
finalAmount);
}
}
A) 528.00
B) 580.00
C) 522.00
D) There is no value because the object order has not been created.
Answer: C

37) A class's responsibilities include:

A) the things a class is responsible for doing
B) the things a class is responsible for knowing
C) both A and B
D) neither A nor B
Answer: C

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38) Instance methods do not have this key word in their headers:
A) public
B) static
C) private
D) protected
Answer: B

39) Which of the following is NOT involved in finding the classes when developing an object-oriented
application?
A) Describe the problem domain.
B) Identify all the nouns.
C) Write the code.
D) Refine the list of nouns to include only those that are relevant to the problem.
Answer: C

40) This is a group of related classes.

A) archive
B) package
C) collection
D) attachment
Answer: B

41) Quite often you have to use this statement to make a group of classes available to a program.
A) import
B) use
C) link
D) assume
Answer: A

42) Look at the following statement.

import java.util.Scanner;

This is an example of
A) a wildcard import
B) an explicit import
C) unconditional import
D) conditional import
Answer: B

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43) Look at the following statement.

import java.util.*;

This is an example of:

A) a wildcard import
B) an explicit import
C) unconditional import
D) conditional import
Answer: A

44) The following package is automatically imported into all Java programs.
A) java.java
B) java.default
C) java.util
D) java.lang
Answer: D

6.2 True/False Questions

1) An object can store data.

Answer: TRUE

2) A class in not an object, but a description of an object.

Answer: TRUE

3) An access specifier indicates how the class may be accessed.

Answer: TRUE

4) A method that stores a value in a class's field or in some other way changes the value of a field is
known as a mutator method.
Answer: TRUE

5) Instance methods should be declared static.

Answer: FALSE

6) A constructor is a method that is automatically called when an object is created.

Answer: TRUE

7) Shadowing is the term used to describe where the field name is hidden by the name of a local or
parameter variable.
Answer: TRUE

8) The public access specifier for a field indicates that the attribute may not be accessed by statements
outside the class.
Answer: FALSE

9) A method that gets a value from a class's field but does not change it is known as a mutator method.
Answer: FALSE
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10) Instance methods do not have the key word static in their headers.
Answer: TRUE

11) The term "default constructor" is applied to the first constructor written by the author of a class.
Answer: FALSE

12) When a local variable in an instance method has the same name as an instance field, the instance field
hides the local variable.
Answer: FALSE

13) The term "no-arg constructor" is applied to any constructor that does not accept arguments.
Answer: TRUE

14) The java.lang package is automatically imported into all Java programs.
Answer: TRUE

11
Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Art principles
in literature
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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Title: Art principles in literature

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART PRINCIPLES

IN LITERATURE ***
 ART PRINCIPLES
IN LITERATURE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS
ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited

LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.

TORONTO

ART PRINCIPLES
IN LITERATURE
By FRANCIS P. DONNELLY, S.J.
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
publishers NEW YORK mcmxxv

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

COPYRIGHT, 1923,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
SET UP AND PRINTED. PUBLISHED OCTOBER, 1923.
REPRINTED APRIL, 1925.
REPRINTED JULY, 1928.

WYNKOOP HALLENBECK CRAWFORD COMPANY, NEW YORK, U. S. A.

 INTRODUCTION
In the Art of Interesting (Kenedy, 1920) the writer began a
discussion of the principles of art and of their application to writing
and speaking. In this work the discussion is carried further and is
not restricted to the one feature of arousing and fixing attention,
especially in oratory, which was the chief topic of the Art of
Interesting. The following chapters represent the reactions of the
writer to literature both as composed today and as taught in our
schools. Any active mind, bewildered by the ceaseless experimenting
in literature and education, and not satisfied with a passive
acceptance of even excellent critics, is necessarily forced back upon
first principles. Such a mind will not yield to the despair of
skepticism, that there are no first principles, nor to the despair of
agnosticism, that there may be such principles but we cannot know
them, nor yet to the despair of pragmatism, that we must wait and
see whether the human race ages from now will give us assurance
that there really are principles of art because the last man has seen
that these principles have been found to work up to the moment
prior to which he joined Tutankhamen.
Art, just as morals and pure science, differs entirely from the
natural sciences, which are generalizations based upon acquired
information and must change as long as the information upon which
they are based can be modified and enlarged. But where, as in art
or pure science, principles are based on final truths, the principles
have also a finality and can only be rejected if their basis can be
changed or modified. Aristotle’s principles have something of that
finality. Aristotle had for his study a body of literature that has for
centuries met with the approval of the best taste in every age and of
every critic. Aristotle’s biology or physics are not final, but his ethics,
his logic, his esthetics are in measurable distance of finality except
where some additions have been made to the materials upon which
he based his analysis. In religion, because of revelation, in music
because of discoveries in instrumentation, and perhaps in other arts,
time has added to the original store, but in literature there are few
additions to the fields which lay before Aristotle, and subsequent
ages have not developed any keener analytical powers than those of
Aristotle.
It is Aristotle’s principles that in the main have dominated the
writer’s reactions to modern art and literature. When Greek literature
held an honored place in our schools, there was less need of
insisting on obvious truths of art. The intense modernism now
predominating everywhere has driven classical literature and
classical methods from school and life. History is modernized too or
fails to supply the vital contact with the ever-living past which earlier
schools experienced in the poets, historians, orators and
philosophers of Greece and Rome. So-called cultural subjects in
modern education are chiefly informational. Culture is a word which
calls for definition, but on its intellectual side at least, culture for the
largest number of persons in the world can be gauged most
satisfactorily by their appreciation of literature and by their capacity
to produce literature. The study of literature as an art is the chief
topic of this book, and Aristotle’s great principles need all the more
stressing now that his philosophy of art and the supreme literature
on which he based his conclusions are passing away from present-
day consciousness.
The chapters that follow are popular rather than scientific in
presentation. Readers who seek a fuller and wider view may be
interested in such a work as Benedetto Croce’s Æsthetic, from the
Italian by Douglas Ainslie. Its historical summary, especially for
modern times, is valuable and good. For the Greeks and earlier
periods, Butcher’s Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts is easily
best. Professor Rhys Roberts’ editions of the works of Dionysius,
Longinus and Demetrius are excellent for the traditions of classical
rhetoric, a tradition weak in America.
 In theory Croce is an extreme intellectualist in the principles of art.
He locates all of esthetics in pure intuition, which is “lyrical,” that is,
emotional, because it represents “the states of the soul,”
“passionality, feeling, personality.” For Croce “natural beauty is
simply a stimulus to esthetic reproduction, which presupposes
previous production.” He is therefore an idealist in his conception of
beauty. Even monuments of art seem to be only “stimulants to
esthetic reproduction” and are not beautiful in themselves. In
another place, however, Croce seems to be a realist. “Art is governed
entirely by imagination; its only riches are images. Art does not
classify objects nor pronounce them real or imaginary nor qualify
them nor define them. Art feels and represents them. In as far as it
apprehends ‘the real’ immediately before it is modified and made
clear by the concept, it must be called pure intuition.”
Quite to the other extreme in theory goes The Psychology of
Beauty by Ethel D. Puffer. This author has much about sensations
and their physiology and but little about ideas. For Croce the last
stage is in the idea; for Puffer it would seem to be in the work of art.
“The low-lying wide expanse of some of the old Dutch landscapists
give us repose, not because they remind us of the peaceful
happiness of the land but because we cannot melt ourselves into all
those horizontal lines without the restful feeling which accompanies
such relaxation.” This passage might almost class the writer with the
Einfühlung school,—the school which gives Ruskin’s “pathetic fallacy”
a number of advocates. Pathetic fallacy was a complete misnomer
when applied by Ruskin to the well-known tropes of metaphor and
personification. Kingsley was not insane enough to imagine that a
wave was actually cruel and actually crawled. He likened the wave
that drowned to a wild animal. But the school of Lipps in Germany
desires you to moan with the wind and smile with the rose and lie
flat with painted horizontal lines.
Perhaps Puffer’s formula of stimulation with repose and Croce’s
formula of intuition with lyricism can be reconciled with Aquinas’
definition of the beautiful, quæ visa placent. A study of Maurice De
Wulf’s excellent little volume L’Œuvre d’Art et la Beauté gives us
briefly and clearly the neo-scholastic solution of the esthetic
problem. The book is a good example of the reasonable discussion
which has won for scholastic philosophy the universal designation as
the philosophy of common sense. Longhaye’s Théorie des Belles
Lettres, which is scholastic philosophy applied to literature, is
another clear and sane presentation of the principles of the art.
The reader who desires to supplement the popular exposition of
this book with a systematic treatise on the esthetic and its
application to literature is recommended to De Wulf and to
Longhaye. English is rich in criticism but is deficient in works treating
of the philosophy of beauty in literature.
 CONTENTS
PAGE

INTRODUCTION
Connection with author’s Art of Interesting—Need of principles of an art
amidst violent experimentation in art and education—Aristotle’s
principles valid except where the basis of his deductions has been
modified—With Greek literature leaving our schools, Greek taste is
needed against excessive modernism—Recent art discussions— Croce’s
Æsthetic; Puffer’s Psychology of Beauty; De Wulf’s L’Œuvre d’Art et la
Beauté v
ART PRINCIPLES IN LITERATURE

PART FIRST
ART IN THE APPRECIATION OF LITERATURE

I
ART AND THE INDIVIDUAL
1. Individualism and Responsibility 1
Talking to oneself in art—Chaos in religion, morals and art from unchecked
individualism—Altruism a better principle—Responsibility inevitable—
Responsibility a help, no hindrance to the artist—Greek drama; Italian
Madonnas; Horace.

II
ART AND THE INDIVIDUAL
2. Vagaries of Individualism 8
Modern literature and art and a sense of humor—Fiction, biographical and
pathological—New poetry shallow—Riot of emotionalism—Novel of
satire, European continental type originating in low comedy—Novel of
Scott, epic in origin—Nature, experience, wisdom, the remedies of
individualism.

III
ART AND HUMAN NATURE
1. The Universal Element 14
Art movements begin in nature—Art is social—Permanence of literature due
to universal appeal—The camera and the canvas—Personality and
individuality—Shock of nerves not the mental thrill of art.

IV
ART AND HUMAN NATURE
2. Realism and Reality 20
Real cake of soap on a painted wave—Art a distinct world from reality—
Motivation, not through logical discussion but through probable incident
—Painting in the cake of soap—Realism depressing because of cynic
moralizing—Evil in Shakespeare and Homer, relieved by pathos and
humor, not depressing.

V
ART AND THE DIVINE
1. Religious Origin of Art 26
Rich tombs of the past testify to belief in immortality—Cro-Magnon cave
pictures probably religious—Earliest art of all nations due to religion—
Dancing, song, music, sculpture, architecture, drama, epic—Gothic
cathedral of religious middle-ages, synthesis of all arts.

VI
ART AND THE DIVINE
2. The Kinship of Art and Religion 31
Hebraism, Puritanism, Islamism, reacting against art and the result—
Explanation of the origin of art—Taine’s environment theory—Spencer’s
play theory—Theory of fear and magic spells—Adequate explanation
found in man’s intellectual nature—Art like religion intellectual—Art and
religion idealistic—Personal and emotional—Art and religion social in
appeal—Sublimity of art and the revelation of Genesis—Harmonious
equation between soul and the truth of reality, between soul and the
good of morality, same as equation between soul and beauty, all
founded on the fact that both soul and triple reality are images of God.

VII
ART AND THE DIVINE
3. Art in Its Relation to Virtue 39
The theomorphism of man in the threefold tendency of science, morality
and art—Religion, a virtue; art, a function of perceptions—Ruskin’s
school of the religion of beauty—Moralizing not a function of art—
Estheticism neither asceticism nor sensualism—Evil in art to be
 represented as evil—Evil to be a rationalized element—Contemporary
evil excites feelings of reality—Art and religion ennobling—Art and
religion purifying—Creation and disinterestedness most divine elements
in art.

VIII
THE VISCERAL TEST OF BEAUTY
The critic’s equipment—Defective philosophy of some modern critics,
Mencken, Murry, Cohen—Ugly in art and its subdual—Esthetic feeling
not concupiscence—Disinterestedness of beauty excludes sensuality of
appetites—Visceral reactions not from beauty 48

PART SECOND
ART IN THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

IX
LOOKING FORWARD IN LITERATURE
Literature taught for use in Greece, Rome, and elsewhere—Science and
history always changing; literature lasting—Object of literature in
university—True humanism, equipping man’s faculties with art—Every
school subject teaches its like—Correlations of literature and creation—
Contemporary literature not suitable—Scientific study partly; artistic
study is wholly satisfying 57

X
UNIFYING EDUCATION THROUGH LITERATURE
Necessity of unity—In university through profession—No unity in college
electivism—Unity impaired by departments and by specializing—Unity in
France, Germany and England—Departmental system destroying the art
appeal of literature—Science through knowing; art through doing—
Recent mental tests accentuate expression and language—General
education through art of literature 64

XI
THE INTERESTING TEACHER OF LITERATURE
Spread of science—System and eliminating of personality—Dissertations for
the doctorate—Scholarly means encyclopedic—The impersonal lecturer
—Justin McCarthy’s teacher and his methods—Not scientific
specialization, but exercise of mental powers—Formulas and personality
—Another interesting teacher—Literature educates equally with science
—The ideal 70
 XII
EDUCATING THE EMOTIONS
Life full of emotions—Emotions intense in our crowded civilization—Morale,
organized emotion—Emotions neglected in education—Education of
facts dominating schools—Twofold nature of emotions—Emotions from
concrete imagining—Kindled by contact—Literature embodiment of
emotions—Emotions developed by self-expression and controlled by
exercise 83

XIII
KEEP THE CLASSICS BUT TEACH THEM
Classics to be kept but taught differently—Former help of translation—
Literature overwhelmed by erudition—Germany, France, England,
America—True use of erudition—Natural sciences change; art endures—
Reproduction, the soul of literary teaching—Method of training—Modern
literatures not yet able to supplant ancient literatures 91
XIV
THE VITALIZER OF THE WORLD
Literary renaissances associated with Greek literature—Revivals through
Irish monks—Spain, France, Scholasticism—Germany with Wolf,
Winckelmann, Lessing—England under Queen Anne and Queen Victoria
—Youth of civilization in Greece 100
XV
TRUE PRINCIPLES OF HOMERIC CRITICISM
Story of Phidias’ statue and Homer—Homer tested by art—Flaws in material
—Absorption in immediate effects—Told story different from story read
—Outline of a study on a broad scale—Variety, alternation, growth in
Homeric battling—Homeric palace, the place of Homer’s recital 106

XVI
THE CHILD-TEST OF LITERATURE
Child-test in religion and morals, in the Bible—Homer’s mother and child—
Hector and Andromache—Child in later literature rare—Latin writers—
Conventionality instead of Homeric naturalness 114

XVII
THE CHRIST-CHILD TEST OF LITERATURE
Christ-Child in art—Christmas and the drama—In Ireland—Medieval and 119
Renaissance writers—Milton’s war-like child—Wordsworth, Shelley,
 Tennyson, Longfellow—Return of naturalness in Stevenson, Carroll and
others—Faith and its effects in Thompson and Tabb

APPENDIX

GREEK SPEAKS FOR ITSELF

Mosaic of etymology—Ecclesiastical sphere—Diet, posies and programs—
Geography, zoology, politics—Pharmacies and surgery—Schools and
composition—Apology and epitaph 129

NOTE: THE NATURE OF ESTHETIC ENJOYMENT

Ownership not of the essence of beauty as of good—Perception sufficient
for the enjoyment of the beautiful—No new faculty required—Pleasure
is normal life consciously localized—Esthetic Enjoyment in the simple
apprehension, not in judgment or inference as such—Fact not of the
essence of esthetic enjoyment, which is had in fiction too—Causa
Exemplaris—Imagination, source of originality—Aristotle’s principles:
creation, motivation, unity, universality 134

A FORWARD-LOOKING LESSON IN LITERATURE 159

ART PRINCIPLES IN
LITERATURE
 PART FIRST
ART IN THE APPRECIATION OF LITERATURE
 I
ART AND THE INDIVIDUAL

1. INDIVIDUALISM AND RESPONSIBILITY

A group was standing before a futurist or cubist picture. The

group did not know what the picture was all about, but one spoke
up in defense of the bewildering work: “Well, after all, art is a
language, and why shouldn’t a man be permitted to speak his own
language?” A bystander, not daring to address strangers, made
answer under his breath: “If art is a language, this artist is talking to
himself.” Maudlin, incoherent remarks, disjointed utterances, and in
general talking to one’s self, all that, does not pass for high art
among men, but for something quite different. To talk to one’s self is
the extreme of individualism in conversation; to ignore the world
addressed through artistic composition is the triumph of
individualism in art.
The abrupt break with all tradition in every art, and the
untrammeled expression of the individual, have worked out to the
inevitable and bizarre conclusions which a like rebellion has brought
about in religion and morals. Every man his own dogmatist; every
man his own moralist; that is the individualism which has divided
mankind into multitudinous sects and has made millions of moral,
unmoral and immoral moralists eager for legislation of infinite variety
without any fixed principles to enforce the observance of even one
law. Conscience, the executive impulse of all legislation, used to be
the voice of God, but individualism has made it anything from a
survival of the fittest or an economic standard, through countless
varieties all the way to a Freudian complex.
Individualism has run amuck in art from classicism to cubism. It is
a barren day which does not produce a new system of religion or
morals, and only the occurrence of earthquake, war, fire or some
other tremendous upheaval keeps our journals from recording some
new theory of art, some Tomism, Dickism or Harryism. Art for art’s
sake has been given an individualistic interpretation and has
produced the same rich crop, as the individualistic cry, every man his
own dogmatist and moralist, has produced—a rich crop of weeds.
If ever an individual could pursue his blissful way oblivious of the
existence of a surrounding universe, surely he may not do so now
when the universe impinges upon him every moment through ticker,
telephone, wireless and unlimited “extras.” There is, however, no
such thing as unrestricted individualism. Of God alone can be
predicated existence for its own sake. Everybody his own dogmatist
means ultimately everybody his own god. Art for art’s sake,
interpreted in an individualistic sense, would not only destroy art but
would destroy the world. Art for art’s sake should read art for
everybody’s sake and for the sake of God, and such a reading will be
infinitely better for art’s sake.
It was an Irish colleen, accepting matrimony as a complete
submergence of individuality, who replied to a friend dwelling on the
dangers of a long ocean trip to be taken by the new bride and
groom: “And why should I be afraid, sure ’tis his loss if anything
happen to me now!” She was the counterpart of the Irish lad who
sang under similar circumstances, “I’m not myself at all.” There you
have the complete altruism resulting from the perfect union of
matrimony. There is the antithesis of individualism, and such
matrimonial communism is far better for every one than any cry of
“wife for wife’s sake” or “husband for husband’s sake.”
It is quite evident that no artist can exempt himself from
responsibility as though his art were a deity. If a picture or statue or
poem would be an incentive to murder or suicide, the artist must
stay his hand. He may not manufacture bombs for soul destruction,
no matter how artistic the container, even if someone else is to
supply the detonator. A lie in beautiful language is a more ugly lie.
Recent pretended upholders of the Volstead law have printed an
emphatic warning on compounds of their manufacture: “Do not add
such an ingredient or this compound will violate the law.” May an
artist naïvely dissociate himself from responsibility by stating: “Do
not add human nature to my art-product or you will violate the law”?
Were the artist a real creator, he would have to forecast results and
be dominated by a purpose. Nor may the artist, like God, permit evil,
because no artist has omnipotence and infinite wisdom and justice
and mercy, governing the permission of evil and guaranteeing good
as the final result. May a man who owns a wild tiger of surpassing
beauty, trusting in the right of property, parade down a crowded
thoroughfare with his jungle pet tethered to a thread?
But why all these truisms? Because individualism in art aims in
principle and production not only to free art from restrictions but
even to exempt the artist from responsibility. The artist may not talk
to himself unless he can find a South Sea island where there is
neither man nor God. Nor is it a deadening of his artistic impulse for
the artist to be ruled by high purposes, but rather it is a stimulus
and an inspiration. Eschylus and Sophocles have a sublimer beauty
than Euripides because the earlier dramatists recognized more fully
and kept better in view the religious purposes of Athenian drama.
Euripides, wishing to cater more to theatric effects, succeeded in
being more emotional and in achieving a realistic but transient
interest, the hectic flush that marks decay and death in twilight and
autumn and sinister disease. Is the marked revival of Euripides
within recent years a sign of decadence?
The Madonnas of Italian art received from the painter a solemn
beauty not only because they depict Divine maternity, but even too
because they were to grace a religious shrine and to constitute part
of a religious service. That may be one reason why the Madonnas of
Italy are far superior to the prettiness and sentimentality of more
recent Madonnas which are painted for private homes and for
ephemeral interest.
The purpose of the artist is one thing and the purpose of art is
another thing. The purpose of a watch is to keep time whatever
purpose the watch-maker may have. It is likely, however, that if he
makes the watch for his mother, he will produce better results than if
he worked for his usual wage or than if he functioned as part of a
machine, having no clearly defined ulterior purpose. So an artist will
be inspired in painting, in sculpture, in music, in all arts, to elicit
better his full powers and to achieve finer results when he toils for a
cathedral than when he works for a cabaret. Noble responsibility
conscientiously recognized and fulfilled is no check, but rather a spur
to the artist.
“Art for art’s sake” may, however, be taken to mean, “Embody
beauty wherever found, or realize to the full your ideal,” and such a
meaning is excellent and fruitful unless excessive individualism
insists upon expressing its own perverted ideas of beauty and its
own eccentric ideals. When Horace said, “Let justice be done though
the heavens come crashing down,” a line that might be rendered,
“Justice for justice’s sake,” he was far from advocating the explosion
of a bomb by some Roman anarchist whose idea of justice was to
bring all to a dead level of ruin. The progressive improvement in the
realization of art-ideals may be very well illustrated from the career
of Horace. Horace gradually worked himself free from the
conventionality and baseness of his epodes and earlier satires,
experienced the cleansing process of true humor in later satires,
took fire at the moral degeneracy of Rome in the initial odes of the
third and last book of his first edited lyrics. There the sæva
indignatio of Horace brought him within distant sight of sublimity. His
progress in philosophy weighted the wings of his song but dowered
him with the crystal and clean wisdom of his epistles, of which it has
been said one need not blot out a single line. Had Horace retained
the youthful vehemence of the republican amid the enervating peace
of the new empire, he might have followed Dante and Milton from
lyric beauty to epic sublimity, or might have risen with Shakespeare
and Molière from song to comedy or even to tragedy, but his
hedonistic sleekness and his excessive self-consciousness kept his
ripened philosophy in brief letters, when a more vigorous mentality
with the help of philosophy might have converted his ennobled
power of satire into comedy or transformed the lyric portraits of his
early days into tragedy or epic story.
 II
ART AND THE INDIVIDUAL

2. VAGARIES OF INDIVIDUALISM

Modern art has not followed Horace very far. It has broken with
conventionality as Horace did with the clichés of Alexandria, but it
has not yet entered upon the path of right philosophy. The Spoon
River Anthology, a typical specimen from the individualistic school of
what might be called localists or village gossips, is in the epode-
stage of Horace, the stage of personalities, lubricity and garlic
gruesomeness. Hopes might be entertained that Spoon River and
Main Street and other individualistic photographs would
progressively improve with Horace except for one sad deficiency:
Horace had humor and laughed at others, and even at himself;
modern individualists are so heavily armored with the seriousness of
their own views, that they don’t even smile. To imagine the New Art
laughing is impossible; if the New Art had humor and laughed, it
would cease to be New Art and would join the larger brotherhood of
art uncapitalized. Had the new artists a sense of humor, it would
probably be their death sentence. In the course of time they might
catch sight of their own art products, whether of painting or of
poetry.
Is it not an indication of individualism that so many recent novels
are biographies, that the stage is not holding up the mirror to life
but applying the scalpel to an ulcer? The biography or personal
views of Scott and Shakespeare cannot be discovered in their works.
The modern pamphleteer distributes his paradoxes among various
mouthpieces whose only difference is in name, and this is called a
play, when it is in reality propaganda. There are probably now no
less than 100,000 college graduates turning college escapades and
flirtations into chapters, which their authors consider typical of life
because the incidents were individually experienced. And, as the
long stories of the day are biographies or problems and as the
drama is a diagnosis of diseases, in the same way many of the short
stories are pathological, but all are tending to be individualistic. The
artist makes his own subjective experience the full measure of his
artistic expression and seems to imagine that his own peculiarities
are good art because he sincerely expresses what he feels.
Individual nature is not human nature.
Aristotle has described poetry as the universal in the concrete. The
“new poets” give the individual in the concrete. Homer, Shakespeare,
the true poets, plumb to the depths of the human heart; they voice
ripened experience and enshrine mellow wisdom, and so appeal to
all men of all times. Much of the new poetry ostentatiously disdains
tradition and rejects the wisdom of the ages in discarding its dress.
You may see the rouge on the cheek and the freckle on the nose,
but as far as life and experience and heart are concerned, most of
the new poetry is pitiably young and callous. Meticulous recording of
disconnected and unrelated novelties is no adequate substitute for
the warmth and depth of life crystallized by the ardent gaze of the
true poet out of his experience. New poetry is contemporaneous
with the invention and use of the Kodak and has all the responsibility
and profundity of that instrument.
Individualism has come to such a pass in modern art that
everything in it is resolving itself into pure emotionalism, and that an
emotionalism which does not belong to art at all. Degenerates are
the products of civilization; they are decayed exotics. “The higher
the organism, the more noisome the decay,” a science professor
used to say when paying his respects to diseased metaphysics. As
only a believer can blaspheme luridly, so when an artist goes wrong,
he goes wrong hideously. A pistol in the hands of a marksman gone
mad is more destructive than in the hands of a savage. Colors,
sounds, shapes, fair words and gorgeous imaginings are instruments
of degradation and death if they are a finer veneer over what is
false. Individual vagaries and whims, no matter how unusual, will
not have the permanence of art because they are based on no
principles, but devised simply to startle. Degrade the appeal of
beauty to a spinal thrill and your artist will pander to concupiscence.
It is noteworthy that Homer’s worst lapse in story-telling takes
place among the luxurious Phæacians, ancient prototypes of
degeneracy. Homer may have felt justified artistically because he
was depicting the non-Grecian world through whose monsters and
marvels Odysseus was passing and making the first collection of
sailors’ yarns. But Homer shocked even the pagan world and set an
unhappy precedent. Lucian and Ovid, Petronius and Apuleius and the
Byzantine eroticists made what was incidental in Homer their chief
concern and practice. They perverted fiction into calculated
suggestiveness.
That depraved and sensual theory of story-telling was, however,
more Aristophanic than Homeric, despite the single unfortunate
precedent in the Odyssey. The tradition of Greek and Latin comedy
was carried on by the medieval troubadours and by the story-tellers
who catered to the decadent nobility of Italy and France. They
retorted on their clerical censors and stimulated jaded appetites,
substituting in shameless intrigues priests and nuns for the pagan
gods. It was and is the glory of Scott that he broke away from these
evil traditions which made the novel a hateful thing to our
forefathers. Scott deserted the continental school of novelists and
their English imitators, Fielding, Sterne, Smollett, the last of all
Byron. Scott gave up the satirical purposes which handed on in
fiction the vulgar devices of low comedy. He went to history, to
chivalry, to healthy men and women and created romances, not
pathological studies. English, Irish and American fiction for a whole
century yielded to the healthy and bracing impulse of Scott, but the
younger novelists in vogue today in England, Ireland and America
have gone back to the continental type, individual, pathological
biographical problems, forsaking Scott’s revival through balladry of
the best Homeric manner, where men “drank delight of battle with
their peers far on the ringing plains of Troy.”
 The individualist must emancipate himself by the contemplation of
nature. Pathological specimens, freakish oddities, all the surface
impressions of the local colorists are not nature any more than a
face contorted with a toothache is a man’s likeness. Such exceptional
exhibitions cannot form the enduring basis of art. Personal
experience must be widened by length of time, by merging into the
stream of wisdom, flowing freighted from the past, or must, in
exceptional cases, be won quickly by that intense and probing
comprehension of genius, which seems almost Divine intuition.
Excessive individualism, like the latest fashion, will be quaint and
incongruous on the morrow. Homer lives eternal because through
strange names and strange language and strange costumes we see
our own sun and fields and ocean and sky and put our fingers on a
pulse which registers the beat of a heart throbbing as ours.
 III
ART AND HUMAN NATURE

1. THE UNIVERSAL ELEMENT

A serious defect in most modern art movements is that they start

from art; they are modifications of previous art movements. True art
movements start from human nature. When perfection in any art is
standardized, when tradition and conventionality prevail, and the
artist has originality enough to chafe at the restraints of classicism
but not originality enough to reveal finer ideals through classic
expression, his temptation is to rebel at conventionalities and to
deem himself original because he is unconventional. He wishes to be
different from other artists and seeks for the difference by discarding
the traditional medium rather than by improving his own personal
message. He prefers to be different and even original by cutting his
ginger-bread into the shape of automobiles and air-planes instead of
going back to mother’s classic make and blending his ingredients
into a new creation, a creation which will make fresh appeal even in
former animal shapes or in the traditional ginger-bread cart-wheels.
Art is a social institution. If not by the people, art is of the people,
and certainly for the people. When Greek literary art grew
conventional in its different forms, the artists went back to the
people for another medium to be transfigured by art. Ruskin has
called architecture a “glorified roof.” The sonata is a glorified folk
melody; epic is glorified folk lore; and Greek drama is a glorified folk
song, as Elizabethan drama is a glorified folk chronicle. Both dramas
have their roots in the religious services of the people. Homer told
us about the public he had, but the nineteenth century would not
trust his word until Schliemann dug up the great halls where
Demodokos and his fellows told the people their own folk stories in a
glorified, artistic form. Greek lyric and Greek pastoral were as public
as Greek oratory, Greek choruses, temples and statuary. It was left
for Roman conquerors to begin the segregation of art into the cold
storage of the modern millionaire and of the modern museum.
The permanence of Greek art is based upon that public appeal. Art
is long because it embodies nature, and most of all human nature.
Homer has appealed to man, woman and child for thousands of
years. His human nature is our human nature despite external
differences of every kind. Homer himself was aware of the appeal of
nature in art. On the shield of Achilles, he marveled at the field
which grew black behind the plowing, a marvel of Homer’s close
study of nature as well as an expression of his ideal for art. Nature is
a language all can understand and human nature is a language all
must and do understand. When lament was made over the body of
Patroklos, the elegy of Briseis stirred all, “and thereon the women
wailed, in semblance for Patroklos, but each for her own woe.”
Similar is the appeal of art where in semblance of something else,
each sees what belongs to self. Aristotle in seeking to explain the
characteristic pleasure of art ascribes it to mimesis or re-
presentation in another medium. Such staging, he says, not only
robs the terrifying of its terrors but enables all to understand and
reason to the nature of each art product. Such understanding and
reasoning mean surely something more than the mere recognition of
photographic accuracy and likeness. If we may press the meaning of
the Greek word used for reason, the process of art enjoyment is
similar to the syllogistic process which involves an appeal to a
general statement. The process is one which recognizes the general
in a particular case, as the grief of Briseis found an echoing grief in
every heart.
Whether Aristotle and this interpretation of him is correct or not, it
is evident that art must generalize. Art must select, both by choice of
the artist and by the limitations of his medium. Art does not
photograph, because it has no sensitive plate for its medium. The
photographer’s art largely precedes the camera and consists in
selecting that pose and that expression, out of many, which is yours.
The camera is nature, controlled by mechanism, and is not art. If the
photographer or painter or sculptor photographed you in some
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