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 Programming and
­Interfacing with Arduino
 Programming and
­Interfacing with Arduino

Dr. Yogesh Misra

First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 Yogesh Misra

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
­publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
­reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and
let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.
com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact m
­ pkbookspermissions@
tandf.co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-05985-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-06316-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20170-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. xiii
Author ...................................................................................................................... xv
Abbreviations Used in This Book ..........................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Arduino UNO Board ...................................................1

Learning Outcomes ..............................................................................1
1.1 Features of Arduino UNO Board ..............................................1
1.2 Arduino IDE Software ..............................................................3
1.2.1 Editor ............................................................................3
1.2.2 Compiler .......................................................................3
1.2.3 Linker ........................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Locator .........................................................................4
1.2.5 Hex Converter .............................................................. 4
1.2.6 Loader...........................................................................4
1.3 Arduino IDE Download ............................................................4
1.4 Working with Arduino IDE .......................................................5
1.5 Introduction to ATmega 328 ...................................................... 7
1.6 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Communication Protocol ...... 9
1.6.1 Steps of SPI Data Transmission – The Steps for
Data Transmission in SPI Protocols are as Follows: .... 9
1.6.2 Advantages of SPI Data Transmission –
The Advantages of Data Transmission in
SPI Protocols are as Follows: ..................................... 11
1.6.3 Disadvantages of SPI Data Transmission –
The Disadvantages of Data Transmission in
SPI Protocols are as Follows: ..................................... 11
1.7 Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) Communication Protocol......... 11

Chapter 2 Arduino Programming Constructs ..................................................... 15

Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 15
2.1 Structure of Arduino Programming ........................................ 15
2.1.1 Setup() .................................................................... 15
2.1.2 Loop() ...................................................................... 15
2.1.3 Variables ..................................................................... 15
2.1.4 Constant...................................................................... 16
2.1.5 Integer......................................................................... 16
2.2 Function ................................................................................... 16
2.2.1 pinMode(pin, mode)........................................... 16
2.2.2 digitalWrite(pin, value) ............................... 17

v
vi Contents

2.2.3 digitalRead(pin)................................................. 18
2.2.4 analogRead(pin) .................................................. 19
2.2.5 analogWrite(pin, value) ................................20
2.2.6 delay(value) .........................................................20
2.2.7 for loop ..................................................................... 21
2.2.8 Serial.begin(rate) ............................................ 21
2.2.9 Serial.print(“argument”) ............................... 21
2.2.10 Serial.println(“argument”) .......................... 21
2.2.11 if statement ............................................................... 22
2.2.11.1 Simple if.................................................... 22
2.2.11.2 if/else ..................................................... 23
2.2.11.3 Multiple if/else.......................................24
2.2.12 map function...............................................................25

Chapter 3 I/O Devices, Actuators, and Sensors .................................................. 27

Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 27
3.1 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................... 27
3.1.1 LED under Forward Bias ........................................... 27
3.1.2 LED under Reverse Bias ............................................ 27
3.1.3 Interfacing of LED with Arduino UNO ..................... 29
3.2 Switch ...................................................................................... 29
3.3 Seven-Segment Display ........................................................... 31
3.3.1 Common Cathode Seven-Segment Display (CC)....... 31
3.3.2 Common Anode Seven-Segment Display (CA) .........34
3.4 LCD Module............................................................................ 35
3.5 Potentiometer ........................................................................... 37
3.5.1 Internal Schematic of Potentiometer .......................... 38
3.5.2 Working of Potentiometer .......................................... 38
3.6 Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) .......................................40
3.6.1 Pin Description of ADC 804 ......................................40
3.6.2 Analog to the Digital Data Conversion Process in
ADC 804 .................................................................... 42
3.6.3 Important Terminology of ADC ................................ 43
3.6.4 Analog Inputs in Arduino UNO Board ......................44
3.7 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) ............................................44
3.7.1 Working of PWM Concept......................................... 45
3.7.2 Applications of PWM................................................. 45
3.7.3 PWM Pins in Arduino UNO Board ...........................46
3.8 Temperature Sensor LM35 ...................................................... 47
3.9 Humidity and Temperature Sensor DHT11 ............................. 48
3.9.1 Pin Description of DHT11.......................................... 48
3.9.2 General Features of DHT11 ....................................... 48
3.9.3 Working Principle of DHT11 ..................................... 49
3.9.4 Timing Diagram of DHT11 ........................................ 50
3.9.5 Data Format of DHT11............................................... 50
Contents vii

3.10 Motor Driver L293D................................................................ 51

3.10.1 Pin Description of L293D .......................................... 51
3.10.2 Working of L293D ..................................................... 52
3.10.3 Description of L293D Motor Driver Module ............. 57
3.11 Relay ........................................................................................ 58
3.11.1 Pin Description of the Relay ...................................... 58
3.11.2 Working of Relay ....................................................... 59
3.11.3 Interfacing of Relay .................................................... 59
3.11.4 Relay Board ................................................................ 62
3.12 Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR) ............................................ 62
3.12.1 Working Principle of LDR ......................................... 62
3.12.2 Construction of LDR .................................................. 63
3.12.3 Applications of LDR ..................................................64
3.13 Keypad Matrix......................................................................... 65
3.13.1 Single-Dimensional Interfacing Approach of
Switches...................................................................... 65
3.13.2 Algorithm to Find Out Which Switch is Pressed
in Single-Dimensional Interfacing Approach ............66
3.13.3 Disadvantage of Single-Dimensional Interfacing
Approach ....................................................................66
3.13.4 Two-Dimensional Interfacing Approach
of Switches .................................................................66
3.13.5 Algorithm to Find Out Which Switch is
Pressed in Two-Dimensional Interfacing
Approach (Key Matrix) ..............................................66
3.13.6 A 4 × 4 Keypad ........................................................... 68
3.14 Optical Sensor ......................................................................... 70
3.14.1 Retro-Reflective Optical Sensor ................................. 70
3.14.2 Retro-Reflective Optical Sensor Module ................... 72
3.15 Capacitive Touch Sensor.......................................................... 73
3.15.1 Capacitive Touch Sensor Working Principle .............. 74
3.15.2 Capacitive Touch Sensor Module ............................... 75
3.16 Gas Sensor ............................................................................... 76
3.16.1 Working of the Gas Sensor (MQ2)............................. 77
3.16.2 Gas Sensor Module (MQ2) ........................................ 77
3.16.3 Calibration of Gas Sensor (MQ2) Module ................. 78
3.17 Rain Detector Sensor (FC-07)................................................. 78
3.17.1 Rain Board ................................................................. 78
3.17.2 Rain Sensor Control Board ........................................ 78
3.17.3 Working of Rain Detector Sensor (FC-07) ................ 79
3.18 Ultrasonic Sensor (HC-SR04) .................................................80
3.18.1 Pin Description and Other Details of Ultrasonic
Sensor Module (HC-SR04) ........................................80
3.18.2 Working Principle of Ultrasonic Sensor Module
(HC-SR04) .................................................................. 81
viii Contents

3.19 Bluetooth Module (HC-05) ..................................................... 83

3.19.1 Pin Description and Other Details
of Bluetooth Module (HC-05) ....................................84
3.20 GSM Module (SIM900A) ........................................................ 85
3.21 Soil Moisture Sensor (YL-69) ................................................. 86
3.21.1 Moisture-Sensing Probe Module................................ 86
3.21.2 Moisture-Sensing Control Module ............................. 87
3.21.3 Working of Moisture Sensor ...................................... 88

Chapter 4 Interfacing and Programming with Arduino ..................................... 93

Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 93
4.1 LED Interfacing and Programming ........................................ 93
4.2 Display in Serial Monitor ........................................................ 98
4.3 Push-Button Interfacing and Programming .......................... 105
4.4 Seven-Segment Display Interfacing and Programming ........ 112
4.5 Miscellaneous Programs Related to LED ............................. 125
4.6 LCD Interfacing and Programming ...................................... 131
4.7 Potentiometer Interfacing and Programming ........................ 140
4.8 Arduino Programming Using PWM Techniques .................. 150
4.9 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino with LM35 ......... 157
4.10 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino with
Humidity and Temperature Sensor DHT11 ........................... 163
4.11 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino
with DC Motor ...................................................................... 168
4.12 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino with
High-Voltage Device and Relay............................................. 183
4.13 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR) .......................................... 189
4.14 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
4 × 4 Keypad .......................................................................... 194
4.15 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Optical Sensor ....................................................................... 201
4.16 Interfacing of Capacitive Touch Sensor with
Arduino UNO ........................................................................208
4.17 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Smoke Detector Sensor ......................................................... 213
4.18 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Rain Detector Sensor (FC-07)............................................... 217
4.19 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Ultrasonic Sensor (HC-SR04) ............................................... 221
4.20 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Bluetooth Module (HC-05) ...................................................224
4.21 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
GSM Module (SIM900A) ...................................................... 228
Contents ix

4.22 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO Using

I2C Protocol........................................................................... 231

Chapter 5 ­Arduino-Based Projects.................................................................... 235

5.1 ­Arduino-Based Obstacle Detection and Warning System..... 235
5.2 ­Arduino-Based Gas Leakage Detection................................. 238
5.3 Arduino-Based Burglar Detection.........................................240
5.4 ­Arduino-Based Weather Monitoring System......................... 243
5.5 ­Arduino-Based Mobile ­Phone-Controlled Light.................... 247
5.6 ­Arduino-Based Plant Watering System.................................. 250

Appendix 1: Answers to Check Yourself............................................................ 255

References.............................................................................................................. 257
Index....................................................................................................................... 259
Preface
This book provides a platform to the beginners to get started with the development
of application by using Arduino UNO board. The objective of this book is to provide
programming concepts of Arduino UNO board along with the working and interfac-
ing of sensors, input/output devices, communication modules, and actuators with
Arduino UNO board.
Arduino is an open-source hardware, which can be used to develop embedded
systems with the help of open-source software. Arduino has gained huge popularity
among the students and hobbyists for making a working model. The reasons behind
the popularity of Arduino are its low cost, availability of software, and easy-to-inter-
face possibility.
When someone is working with Arduino, he needs knowledge of three domains.
First, he must understand the Arduino hardware board. Second, he must understand
the Integrated Development Environment (IDE) required for the development of
software, which actually guides the hardware to perform the desired task. Third, he
must understand the working principle of various sensors, input and output devices,
and actuators, which may be required to gather information from the surrounding for
the processing by Arduino. The contents of this book are developed in keeping of
the view of providing all information which is required for enhancing the expertise
of all the domains required for the development of prototypes by using Arduino and
associated peripherals. This book will be helpful in the development of employability
skills in engineering undergraduate students.
After carefully understanding the exact requirements of the students and begin-
ners, I am quite confident that easy-to-understand language of this book will make
them efficient to learn Arduino. An outstanding and distinguished feature of this
book is large number of programs with description and interfacing diagram associ-
ated with each program.

BOOK ORGANIZATION
This book starts with the explanation of Arduino UNO board and Integrated
Development Environment (IDE). Various constructs required for the development
of software are also covered. The working principle of various sensors is explained in
depth; programming and interfacing examples with Arduino are taken up and finally
some moderate-level projects.
Chapter 1 “Introduction to Arduino UNO Board” gives a detailed informa-
tion regarding various components mounted on Arduino UNO board, IDE, and
ATmega328 microcontroller.
Chapter 2 “Arduino Programming Constructs” gives an in-depth understanding
of various constructs required for the programming of Arduino. Readers will also
learn in this chapter about various operators, data types, and functions, which will be
helpful to them when they start developing software for some specific applications.

xi
xii Preface

Chapter 3 “I/O Devices, Actuators, and Sensors” deals with the construction and
working of various sensors, input devices, output devices, and actuators. The readers
will learn in this chapter the working principle and function of various pins of LED,
seven-segment display, liquid crystal display (LCD), temperature sensor (LM35),
humidity and temperature sensor (DHT11), light-dependent register, touch sensor,
smoke detector (MQ2), rain detector (FC-07), ultrasonic sensor (HC-SR04), soil
moisture sensor (YL-69), Bluetooth module (HC-05), GSM module (SIM 900A),
switch, keypad matrix, potentiometer, analog-to-digital converter IC, motor driver
board (L293D), and relay board.
Chapter 4 “Interfacing and Programming with Arduino” gives detailed information
about how to interface input and output devices, viz., switch, keypad matrix, LED,
seven-segment display, liquid crystal display (LCD) with Arduino UNO board, and
the process of developing application programs for the interfaced circuit.
Chapter 5 “Arduino-Based Projects” covers interfacing and programming
concepts with a large number of circuit diagrams of few projects based on Arduino.
All efforts have been made to keep this book free from errors. I sincerely feel
that this book proves to be useful and helpful to the students for understanding
the interfacing and programming of Arduino. Constructive criticism and sugges-
tions from faculty members and dear students will be highly appreciated and duly
acknowledged.

Dr. Yogesh Misra

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Girish J, Director Education,
GMR Varalakshmi Foundation; Dr. C.L.V.R.S.V Prasad, Principal, GMR Institute of
Technology, Andhra Pradesh, India; and Dr. M.V Nageshwara Rao, HOD, Department
of ECE, GMR Institute of Technology, Andhra Pradesh, India, for their continuous
substantial co-operation, motivation, and support; without them, this work would not
have been possible.
My special thanks to all my colleagues for helping me in reaching the logical
conclusion of my idea in the form of this textbook.
I am indebted to my dear students as the interaction with them helped me a lot in
understanding their needs.
Expressing gratitude publicly to wife is almost missing in Hindu society but I
would like to extend my sincere thanks and appreciation to my wife Dr. Pratibha
Misra for sparing me from day-to-day work for completing this work. I am also
thankful to my son Ishan and daughter Saundarya for providing me special ideas
about this book.
I acknowledge the support from Arduino for using their product images and data
to demonstrate and explain the working of the systems. I thank Taylor & Francis/
CRC Press team for encouraging and supporting me continuously to complete my
idea about this book.
Utmost care is taken for the circuits and programs mentioned in the text. All the
programs are tested on real hardware but in case of any mistake, I extend my sincere
apologies. Any suggestions to improve the contents of this book are always welcome
and will be appreciated and acknowledged.
I am also very much thankful to all who are directly or indirectly involved in the
accomplishment of this task.

Dr. Yogesh Misra

xiii
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
snake) to creep back under the guard.’ Kormak said: ‘Many things do
you the wizards use?’ Skeggi replied: ‘This, however, will help thee
fully.’ After this, Kormak rode home and told his mother what had
happened; and said that her will had much power over Skeggi;
showed her the sword, and tried to draw it: but it would not leave
the scabbard. Dolla said: ‘Too self-willed art thou, kinsman.’ Kormak
put his feet on the guard, and tore off the bag; Sköfnung howled at
this, but could not be drawn from the scabbard.
“The time for the holmgang approached, and Kormak left home with
fifteen men. In the same manner Bersi rode to the place with as
many men. Kormak came first, and said to Thorgils that he wanted
to sit there alone. Kormak sat down and unfastened the sword, and
did not take care that the sun did not shine on its guard; he had girt
himself with it outside his clothes, and tried to draw it; but did not
get it out until he stepped on the guard; the small snake came, but
it was not handled as he should have been, and the luck of the
sword was changed, and it went howling out of the scabbard”
(Kormak’s Saga, c. 9).

There were also garments which were supposed to be impenetrable.

When about to leave the house of his parents, Hrólf went to his
mother Asa and said:

“I want thee, mother, to show me the cloaks which Vefreyja, thy

foster-mother, made for my father a long time ago.’ She opened a
large chest and answered: ‘Here thou canst see them, and they have
decayed but little as yet.’ Hrólf took them up; they were with
sleeves, a hood at the top, and a covering for the face; they were
wide and long; no iron could cut them, and poison could not damage
them. Hrólf took two which were the largest, and said: ‘I do not
carry away too much from the house of my father, though I take the
cloaks’” (Göngu Hrólf’s Saga, c. 4).
Among the kinds of witchcraft mentioned in the sagas is one called
sjonhverfingar (ocular delusion).

“At Froda there was a large hall and a locked bed adjoined it, as
then was customary. On each side of the hall was a small room; one
of them was filled with dried fish and the other with flour. Meal fires
were made every night in the hall as was the custom. People used to
sit long at the fires before they went to their meal. When the
gravediggers came home that night, and men were sitting at the
fires at Froda, they saw a half moon appearing on the wall of the
room. All those who were inside could see it. It moved backwards
against the course of the sun through the room. It did not vanish
while they sat at the fire. Thorod asked Thorir Wood-leg what this
foreboded. Thorir answered it was the Urdarmani (moon of Urd).
Deaths of men will follow upon this. This continued all the week; the
urdarmani entered every night” (Eyrbyggja, c. 52).[399]

“Late in the summer Hörd went to Saurbœr with twenty-three men,

for Thorstein Öxnabrodd (ox-staff) had boasted that his witchcraft-
knowing foster-mother Skroppa could with her sorcery effect that
the Hólmverjar (men of Hólm, the island) were not able to harm
him. They came to the bœr; Skroppa and the daughters of the bondi
Helga and Sigrid were at home, but Thorstein was at his sæter at
Kuvallardal, in Svinadal. Skroppa opened all the rooms; she made
sjonhverfingar, so that the three (women) sitting on the cross-bench
seemed to them three boxes standing there. The men of Hörd talked
about wanting to break these boxes. Hörd forbade that. They then
left the farm and turned northward to see if they could find any
cattle. They saw a young sow running with two pigs in that
direction; they got ahead of it. Then it seemed to them that a large
crowd of men was coming against them with spears and fully armed,
and the sow with its pigs shook their ears. Geir (Hörd’s foster-
brother) said: ‘Let us go to our boat; there will be odds against us.’
Hörd said it was best not to run away so soon without any trial. At
the same time he lifted up a large stone and struck the sow to
death. When they came to it they saw Skroppa lying dead there,
while the bondi’s daughters, whom they had taken for pigs, stood at
her side. When she was dead they at once saw that the crowd which
came against them was oxen and not men; they drove the cattle
down to the boat, killed them, and loaded their boat with the meat.
Geir took Sigrid away against her will, and they went out to the
Hólm (Hörd’s Saga, 25).”[400]

When drowned men came to their own arvel, or burial feast, as

ghosts, it was looked upon as a good sign for the survivors of the
family, for then the dead men had been well received by Ran.
The people were strong believers in ghosts, and thought that the
spirit of the dead could come into the mound where the body was
buried. When they were seen at night at their mounds they were
surrounded by fire, and it was said that the gate of Hel, where the
dead were supposed to be, was open. These ghosts of the dead
were harmless.
The bondmaid of Sigrun, when walking one evening past the mound
of Helgi, saw that he rode to it with many men; she sang:
Is it an illusion
Which I think I see,
Or the doom of the gods?[401]
Dead men ride;
You prick your horses
With spur points,
Or have the Hildings[402]
Got leave to go home?[403]

Helgi sang:
 It is not an illusion
Which thou thinkest thou seest,
Nor the doom of the world,
Though thou seest us,
Though we our horses
Prick with spurs,
But the Hildings have got
Leave to go home.

The bondmaid went home and told Sigrun.

Go out, thou Sigrun
From Sefafjöll,
If thou wantest to
Meet with the leader of men.[404]
The mound has opened;
Helgi has come;
The prints of the sword bleed
The Dogling[405] asked thee
That thou the wound-dripping (blood)
Shouldst stop.

Sigrun went into the mound to Helgi, and sang:

 Now I am as glad
Of our meeting
As the greedy
Hawks of Odin[406]
When they know of slain men
A warm prey,
Or dew-besprinkled,
See the dawn of day.
I will kiss
The dead king
Ere thou throwest off
The bloody brynja;
Thy hair, Helgi,
Is covered with hoar-frost;
The king is all wet
With the dew of the slain.
The hands of Hogni’s son-in-law
Are cold from wet,
How shall I, king,
Better this for thee?
* * * * *

Helgi and his men rode their way, and the maidens went home to
their house. The next evening Sigrun let a bondmaid keep watch at
the mound; and at sunset, when Sigrun came to the mound, the
bondmaid sang:
 Now would have come,
If to come he intended,
The son of Sigmund[407]
From Odin’s halls;
I say that the hope
Of the king’s coming lessens,
As on ashtree boughs[408]
Eagles sit,
And all men throng
To the meeting of dreams.[409]
Be not so mad
As to go alone,
Sister[410] of Skjöldungs,
To the houses of the ghosts.
Stronger, maiden, become at night
All dead fiends,[411]
Than in the light of day.

(Helgikvida Hundingsbani, ii.)

There were ghosts who were supposed to kill people; the best
means of protection against them was to burn the body and throw
the ashes into the sea, or to cut off the head and put it at or
between the feet, as the body had then to walk on its own head.
Another way of getting rid of them was to pursue them by law, and
sentence them at the door of the house they haunted.[412]
Án had slain an outlaw, Garan, in a wood.

“Án left him dead; he cut off his head, dragged him out (of his
house), and put his nose between his legs, that he should not
appear after his death” (An’s Bogsveigis Saga, c. 5).

“The overbearing of Klaufi became so great that he maimed both

men and cattle. Karl thought it a great evil that his kinsman should
be a ghost. He went to his mound and had him dug up. He was then
still undecayed. He had a large fire made on the rock above the
house of Klaufabrekka, and burned him to ashes. He had a case of
lead made, and put the ashes in it. Two bars of iron were on it, and
he sunk it into the hot spring south of Klaufabrekka. The stone on
which Klaufi was burnt was rent in two parts, and Klaufi never did
harm after this”[413] (Svarfdæla, 30).

“At this time Thórodd Thorbrandsson lived in Alptafjord. He owned

both Úlfarsfell and Örlygsstadir, but then the haunting of Thórólf
Bœgifót became so strong that people could not dwell on these
farms. Bólstad was also empty of people, for Thórolf began to haunt
there as soon as Arnkel (the bondi, Thórolf’s son) was dead, and
killed men and cattle. And no man has dared to settle there since
because of this. When this farm was quite deserted, Bœgifót
haunted Úlfarsfell, and caused great trouble there. All the people
were struck with terror when they became aware of him. The bondi
went to Kársstadir and complained of this to Thórod, for he was his
tenant. He said it was the opinion of people that Bœgifót would not
stop before he had devastated the whole fjord of men and cattle,
and if no means were tried against this he would not be able to keep
himself there any longer. When Thórod heard this, he thought it was
not easy to deal with. Next morning he sent for his horse, and told
his huskarls (servants) to go with him, and also had men from the
next farms with him. They went to Bœgifótshöfdi (Cape of Bœgifót)
to Thórolf’s grave. He was then still not decayed, and very troll-like
to look at. He was blue like Hel, and stout like a bull. When going to
move him, they could not lift him at all. Then Thórod had a felled
tree pushed under him, and thus they lifted him out of the grave.
Then they rolled him down on the beach, cut wood, made a large
pile, set it on fire, rolled Thórolf on it, and burned the whole into
cold ashes, though it lasted long before the fire could take in
Thórolf’s body. It was blowing a hard gale, and the ashes were
blown far and wide while the burning lasted, and all the ashes they
could they raked out on the sea. When they had finished this work,
they went home and came there about bedtime” (Eyrbyggja, c. 63).
In later times the seid people were feared and punished, because
they did evil. Harald Fairhair burnt one of his own sons because he
had mixed himself up with this form of witchcraft.[414]

“If a woman is accused of using witchcraft, “galdr,” and sorcery, six

women shall be named on both sides of her who are known to be
good housewives; they shall give evidence that she knows neither
galdr nor sorcery. If they do not, she is an outlaw. The king gets one
half of her property, and the bishop the other” (Gulath 28).

“Rögnvald Réttilbeini owned Hadaland; he learned witchcraft, and

became a seid-man. King Harald disliked seid-men. In Hördaland
there was a seid-man called Vitgeir; Harald sent him word to leave
off seid. He answered and sang:
It does little harm
Though we the children
Of bœndr
Make seid
When Rögnvald
Réttilbeini,
The famous son of Harald,
Makes seid in Hadaland.

When Harald heard this, he sent Eirik (Blood-axe) to Uplönd; he

came to Hadaland and burnt his brother Rögnveld, together with
eighty seid-men, in his house; this deed was much praised” (Harald
Fairhair, c. 36).
 CHAPTER XXXI.
SUPERSTITIONS.—OMENS.

Belief in omens—The sight of blood on food a foreboding of

violent death—Blood dripping from weapons a sign of fierce
conflict—Peculiar appearances of the moon—Ravens—Howling
wolves—Stumbling when going to fight—The second song of
Sigurd Fafnisbani—Supernatural beings—Visions.

The people were strong believers in omens, to which they paid great
attention, and which were supposed to be seen by persons when
awake or in their dreams. Some omens repeated themselves before
recurring events of the same kind.
If any one imagined that he saw blood on his food, or that his food
disappeared, he expected a speedy and violent death;[415] and it was
a common belief that blood dripping from weapons, or their
sounding loud when used, foreboded a fierce battle or conflict.[416]

“He (Hildiglúm) heard a crash so loud that he thought both earth

and heaven shook from it. Then he looked into the west, and saw a
ring with the colour of flame, and in it a man on a grey horse. He
passed quickly; and had a burning firebrand in his hand. He rode so
near him that he could easily see him. He was black as pitch. He
sang this stanza with a loud voice:—
 I ride on a
Rime-frost maned horse,
With dewy wet mane,
Causing evil;
Fire is in the ends of the brand.
Poison in the middle;
Thus is it with Flosi’s plan
As if a stick were thrown,
Thus is it with Flosi’s plan
As when a stick is thrown.

It seemed to him that he flung it eastward to the mountains, and

that such fire rose from it that he did not see the mountains for it. It
seemed to him the man rode eastward to the fire and disappeared
there. Then he went in to his bed, and fell in a long swoon, but
woke from it. He remembered all that had passed before his eyes,
and told it to his father, who asked him to tell it to Hjalti Skeggjason.
He went to Hjalti and told him. ‘Thou hast seen a gandreid,’[417] said
Hjalti, ‘and it always forebodes great tidings’” (Njala, c. 125).

Before the burning of Njal the following omen, which proved true,
appeared at his farm Bergthorshval:—

“Bergthóra (his wife) carried food to the table. Njal said: ‘Strange
does this look to me now; I think I look all over the room, and that
both the gable-walls are off, and the table and the food all covered
with blood.’ All except Skarphédin were startled at this. He asked
them not to grieve or look sorrowful so that people would talk of it”
(Njala, c. 127).

“It happened when Gunnar and Kolskegg rode towards Rangá that
blood fell on the halberd of Gunnar. Kolskegg asked why this was so.
Gunnar answered that when this happened in other countries it was
called blood-rain, and Olver bondi in Hising said that this usually
foreboded great tidings” (Njala, c. 72).
Among these omens must be reckoned the so-called Urdarmáni (the
moon of Urd), a peculiar kind of appearance of the moon which
foreboded the death of many people.[418] There were also natural
omens, good and bad. It was considered a good omen if a warrior
saw a raven follow him when going to fight—the interpretation
probably being that the raven followed a victor in order to eat the
corpses of the enemy; it was also a good omen to see or meet two
men conversing, or to hear a wolf howl. When a man who was slain
by any kind of weapon fell on his face it was thought to be an omen
that he would be revenged, and the vengeance would come down
upon the man who stood just in front of him when he fell;[419] but to
stumble when going to fight, or to hear the croaking of ravens, was
considered a bad omen.
The second song of Sigurd Fafnisbani relates how Sigurd was going
to make war on the sons of Hunding. As he sailed along the coast a
man stood on a rock and asked him who they were. They answered,
and when they asked who he was he said he was called Hnikar (one
of Odin’s names), but they might call him the man of the rock, Feng
or Fjölnir (Odin’s names). He went on board and the storm ceased.
 Sigurd sang

Tell me, Hnikar,

As thou knowest both
The luck of gods and men,
Which are best
If one should fight
Omens at the swoop of swords.

Hnikar.

Many warnings are good

If men knew them
At the swoop of swords;
I think the following
Of the black raven
Is good for a sword-tree.[420]

A second (warning) is,

If thou hast walked out
And art ready on thy way,
And thou seest
Standing on the path
Two men anxious to praise thee.

A third is that
If thou hearest a wolf
Howl under ash-branches.
Good luck wilt thou get
Against helmet-staffs[420]
If thou seest the wolves ahead.

No man should fight

With his face against
The late shining
Sister of the moon;[421]

Those gain victory

Who are able to see
The feats of the sword-play,
Or can array in wedge-shape.[422]

It is a great danger
If thou stumblest
When thou rushest into fight;
 When thou rushest into fight;
Faithless Disir
Stand on either side of thee
And long to see thee wounded.

Combed and washed

Should every wise man be,
And well fed in the morning,
For it is uncertain
Where he may be at night;
It is bad to hurry ahead of one’s luck.

“One morning a raven came to the lighthole at Brekka, and croaked

loudly; then Hromund sang—
 Outside I hear in the morning twilight
The dark blue swan[423] of the sweat of the wound-thorn[424] croak;
The prey wakes the wary-minded one;[425]
Thus of yore screamed
The hawk of Gunn[426] before
Chiefs were death-fated,
When the birds of Gaut[427] foretold the fray.

Thorbjorn.

The hail-sprinkled gull[428] of the wave of heaps of slain

Screams when it comes from the sea;
Its mind craves
The prey of the morning;
Thus of yore screamed
The bird of corpses
From the old tree
When the hawks wanted the mead of kings.[429]

Hromund.

Tree of the shield,[430]

Death was not fated to me
To-day or yesterday;
I[431] make ready for the sound of Ilm.[432]
I care little though plays
The dyed wand of Hedin’s cloth[433]
Against red shields;
To us life was marked before.”

(Landnama, ii. c. 33.)

When there was to be an important event there were always some

omens before it took place, in the shape of visions, or supernatural
beings who sang songs which foretold the event.
It foreboded a violent death if a man saw his fylgja bloody.

“Once Njal and Thórd (his servant) were outside the farm. A he-goat
was in the habit of going about the grass-plot on the farm, and no
one was allowed to drive it away. Thórd said, ‘This is strange.’ Njal
asked, ‘What dost thou see which seems strange?’ He answered, ‘It
seems to me that the he-goat lies here in the hollow place, and is
bloody all over.’ Njal replied there was no he-goat there, nor
anything else. ‘What is it, then?’ inquired Thórd. ‘Thou must be a
death-fated man, and hast seen thy Fylgja,’ said Njal, ‘and guard
thyself well.’ ‘That will not help,’ added Thórd, ‘if death is fated to
me’” (Njala, c. 41).

“It is said that King Gorm once invited to a Yule-feast his father-in-
law Harald, who promised to come in the winter, and the
messengers so reported.
“When the time for preparation came the Jarl chose such followers
to the feast as he wanted. Knut went with him, but it is not said how
many men he had. They arrived at the Limafjord, and as they were
about to cross it they saw there an oak which appeared somewhat
unusual. There were growing on it acorns, which were small and
quite green, but under it lay others both ripe and large. At this they
wondered much, and the Jarl thought it very strange that there
should be green acorns at that time of the year, for there lay near
the oak those which had grown during the summer. ‘We will go
back,’ said the Jarl, ‘and proceed no farther.’ He thereupon returned
home, where he remained with his hird the next season. The King
deemed it strange that the Jarl did not come, but thought something
important had prevented him. All was quiet during the summer, and
when winter came the King invited the Jarl to the Yule-feast, as in
the previous year. The Jarl promised to go, as before, and when the
time came departed with his followers, and journeyed until he came
to the Limafjord. He had now come on board, and intended to cross
the fjord. It is said that they had with them pregnant bitches. After
they had got on board the Jarl thought he heard the whelps in the
bellies of the bitches barking, while the mothers themselves were
silent. This the Jarl and all regarded as the greatest wonder, and
they therefore turned back, and stayed at home during that Yule. On
the third winter the King again invited the Jarl, who promised to
come; and when the time came he departed, and journeyed until he
arrived at the Limafjord, resolving to remain there overnight. Then a
sight presented itself which was thought very strange. They saw a
wave rise within, and another without, the fjord, and the two
advanced to meet each other. The waves were large and made a
great noise when they met and fell together; then it seemed as if
the sea became bloody. Then the Jarl said, ‘This is a fearful portent,
and we must turn back and not accept the invitation.’ This they did,
and the Jarl remained at home also that Yule....
“It was resolved that the King should send messengers to the Jarl to
ascertain why he had not come. The Queen advised that they should
first meet and talk to him, and thus see what the reason was. When
the messengers told the Jarl of their errand, he quickly got ready
and went to visit Gorm with a fine retinue. The King received his
father-in-law well, and quickly went to speak with him. The King
asked why he had not once come at his bidding, and thus shown
disrespect to the King and his invitation. The Jarl replied that he had
meant no disrespect, but had not once come to the feast, because
other things had prevented him. He then told the wonders which
they had seen, as mentioned before, and asked if he would like to
know what he thought each wonder meant. To this the King
assented. The Jarl then said: ‘I will first take that one where we saw
an oak with small green acorns, with the old and large ones
underneath. That I think must foretell a change of belief which will
come over these lands, which will flourish more, and the fine acorns
foretell that; but the present belief is betokened by the old acorns on
the ground, and they will rot and become mere dust; this belief will
also fall and be destroyed when the new one rises. The second
wonder was when we heard the whelps bark in the bitches. That I
think must foretell that young men will take the words from the
mouths of the older, and become so reckless that they will have no
less to say, though the older are oftener wiser in counsels. And I
think that those of whom this will be true have not yet come into the
world, for the whelps which barked while the mothers were silent
were yet unborn.
“‘The third, when we saw the waves, one from the outer part, and
the other from the inner part of the fjord, meet midways and fall
each on the other’s neck, and the water become bloody from the
disturbance therefrom forebodes, I think, that some enmity will arise
between great men within the country, whence will come fights and
much disturbance. It is very likely that some offshoot of this war will
take place at the Limafjord, because it is there we have seen these
wonders of which I have spoken.’
“King Gorm was satisfied with the words of the Jarl, and thought him
wise; he gave him peace, and his anger departed. It is said that
before they went into the speech-room the King had set men to slay
the Jarl, if haughtiness and disrespect were the only reasons for his
not coming to the feast when invited; but the King now thought he
had good cause for not coming. They went away from the speech-
room, and the Jarl remained with him for a while. They then
separated in peace, and the Jarl received good gifts. He left with his
followers, and had a good journey home.
“A short time after Klakkharald gave his foster-son and kinsman Knut
all his realm, and Knut took the rule of Holtsetaland and all the
realms of Harald Jarl.
“The Jarl made ready to leave, and began his journey southward to
Valland. He there embraced Christianity, and never returned to
Denmark” (Flateyjarbók, vol. i.).
 CHAPTER XXXII.
SUPERSTITIONS.—DREAMS.

Faith placed in dreams—Revelations of the gods in dreams—

Their interpretation an important gift—Absence of dreams
considered a misfortune—Magical sleep.

The faith of the Northmen in dreams[434] was almost as great as that

which they placed in their gods; like the ancient Egyptians, Greeks,
Jews, and other earlier nations, they believed that by them they
were informed of coming events. Instances frequently occur in the
Sagas of men wishing to dream in order to know the future. Those
dreams which were of greatest importance were believed to be
influenced by the revelations of the gods to the sleeper. Odin in a
dream showed King Eirik the Victorious how it would go in the battle
against Styrbjörn.[435]
The place where any one dreamt was considered important,
especially if the dream was in a new house; the interpretation of
dreams consequently was considered an important gift, and men
and women who could explain them were called draum-spekingar
(dream-wise),[436] amongst whom the Queens Ingigerd and Thyri
had great renown.

“Harald was a Jarl who ruled over Holtsetaland (Holstein); he was

nicknamed Klakkharald. He was a wise man, and had a daughter
Thyri, who was the wisest of women, and interpreted dreams better
than others. She was also handsome. The Jarl looked to her for the
rule of the land, consulted her in everything, and loved her much.
When Gorm had grown up and had taken the kingship, he left, and
intended to ask for the hand of Harald Jarl’s daughter, or else attack
him. When Harald Jarl and his daughter heard of King Gorm’s
journey and of his intentions, they sent messengers to invite him to
a grand feast. This he accepted, and sat with them at the feast in
good friendship and honour. Then he announced his errand to the
Jarl, who said that his daughter should decide for herself, as she was
much wiser than he. His suit was brought before her, and she said:
‘It shall not be decided forthwith, and thou shalt return with good
and honourable gifts. If thou thinkest much of me, thou shalt, when
thou comest home, quickly cause to be built a house large enough
for sleeping in. It must stand where no house has stood before.
Therein shalt thou sleep the first night of the winter, and three
nights together; and remember if thou dreamest anything. And thou
shalt send men to tell me of thy dreams, if thou hast any, and I will
then say whether I will marry thee or not. But do not send if thou
dost not dream.’ After this talk, King Gorm remained but a short time
at the feast, and made ready to go home, as he was anxious to try
her wisdom. He left with much honour and suitable gifts. When he
returned home, he did in all things as she had told him: had the
house built, and went into it as directed. He left three hundred fully-
armed men near the house, and bade them watch and guard, as he
thought there might be some treachery connected with it. He lay
down on the bed which had been made in the house, and fell asleep
and dreamt; and there he slept three nights, and then sent men and
writings to Holtsetaland to the Jarl.
“The messengers arrived and told Harald Jarl and his daughter of
King Gorm’s dreams, and their errand to Thyri. When she had heard
the dreams, she said: ‘You may stay here as long as you like, but
you shall tell your king that I will marry him.’ They returned and told
the king, who was very glad.
“He made his journey to Holtsetaland with many and well-dressed
men. Harald Jarl heard of it, and had a splendid feast and grand
entertainment prepared for him; and now they were married and
loved each other well. At the feast Gorm entertained them by telling
his dreams. ‘I dreamt the first night, and all the three nights which I
slept in the house, that I was outside and overlooked my whole
realm. I saw the sea recede from the land so that all islands,
sounds, and fjords were dry. After that I saw that three oxen went
out of the sea upon the land where I was, and bit off all the grass
closely where they walked, and then went away.
“‘The second dream was very like the first, for it seemed as if three
oxen again came up from the sea; all were red, with large horns;
they bit off the grass as closely as the previous ones, after which
they returned.
“‘In the third dream, which was like the others, I saw three oxen
come up again; they were all black, and much larger horned than
the others; after a while they returned to the water. After that I
heard such a terrible crash that I thought it must be heard all over
Denmark, and I saw that it was caused by the sea returning toward
the shore. Now,’ he said, ‘I want thee, queen, to interpret the dream
for the entertainment of those present, and thus show thy wisdom.’
She consented, and interpreted the dream as follows: ‘When three
white oxen went up out of the sea on the land, that must mean
three severe winters, when so much snow will fall that the season
will be bad. When thou sawest three other red oxen, that means
there will come three snowless winters, but yet not good ones, for
they bite the grass off the ground. The three black oxen signify that
there will come three winters, which will be so bad that none have
ever seen the like, and such a black and bad season and famine will
come over the land that it will be unexampled. That thou sawest
them with large horns means there will be many outcasts who will
lose all their property; that they went again into the sea means that
the bad season will leave the land like they did; and that thou
heardest a loud crash when the sea again came back on the shore
means the war of powerful men, who shall meet here in Denmark,
and have fights and great battles. It seems to me likely that some of
the men in some of the wars will be near kinsmen to thee. If thou
hadst first dreamt those things that were last, then these wars
would have taken place in thy time, but now this will do no harm;
and I would then not have gone with thee if thou hadst dreamt as I
have before said. I can hinder all these dreams about the famine
from being fulfilled.’ After this feast King Gorm and Queen Thyri
went home to Denmark, and had many ships loaded with corn and
other food, and transported this to Denmark; the same was kept up
every year until the arrival of those severe years which she had
foretold. When the hard time came they wanted for nothing on
account of their preparations, and there was no want in Denmark,
for they distributed much grain among the people. Thyri was
thought to be the wisest woman that had ever been in Denmark,
and was called Thyri Danmarkarbót (Denmark’s helper, saver)”
(Flateyjarbók, vol. i.).

People were often forewarned of death in their dreams:—

“One night when King Ivar slept in the lypting[437] (upper deck) on
his dragon-ship, it seemed to him that a great dragon flew out of the
sea. Its colour was golden, and it glowed in the air as if sparks were
flying from the hearth of a forge, and shone over all the lands
nearest it. Behind it flew all the birds that he knew of in the northern
lands. He saw a great cloud rising in the north-east, followed by
such a rain-storm that it seemed to him all the forests and the whole
land were floating in the water which had fallen: this was
accompanied by thunder and lightning. When the large dragon flew
towards the land, he met the rain-storm, and such a darkness arose
that he could see neither the dragon nor the birds, but only heard
the loud sound of the thunder and the tempest. This passed south
and west over the land, and all over his realm. Then it seemed to
him all his ships had been changed into whales, and swam out to
sea. At this he awoke and called his foster-father, Hörd, told him his
dream, and asked him to interpret it. Hörd said he was so old he
could not understand dreams. He stood on a rock near to one end of
the gangway, but the king lay in the lypting, and was unfastening
the lower border of the tent as they talked. The king was in a bad
humour, and bade Hörd go down on the ship and interpret his
dream. Hörd answered that he would not, and said, ‘I need not
interpret thy dream; thou must know thyself what it means. It is
likely it will not be long before others rule Sweden and Denmark.
Now a greediness foreboding death has come upon thee, as thou
wantest to conquer for thyself every realm, and dost not know that
on the contrary thou wilt die and thy foes take thy realm.’ The king
said, ‘Come here and tell thy evil prophecies.’ Hörd said, ‘I shall
stand here and tell them.’ The king said, ‘To whom of the Asar was
Halfdan the Valiant like?’ Hörd answered, ‘He was as Baldr was with
the Asar, over whom all the gods wept, and not like thee.’ The king
said, ‘That is good. Come here and tell it.’ Hörd answered, ‘I will
stand here and tell.’ The king replied: ‘To whom of the Asar was
Hrærek like?’ ‘To Hænir, who was the greatest coward of the Asar,
though he was less cowardly than thou art.’ The king asked, ‘To
whom of the Asar was Helgi the Sharp like?’ Hörd replied, ‘He was as
Hermód, who was very bold, and did harm to thee.’ The king said,
‘To whom of the Asar was Gudröd like?’ Hörd: ‘He was as Heimdal,
who was the most foolish of all the Asar, and nevertheless a lesser
fool than thou.’ The king: ‘To whom of the Asar am I like?’ ‘Thou
resemblest the worst of all serpents existing, the Midgardsorm.’ The
king answered in great anger: ‘If thou tellest me I am death-
doomed, I can tell thee thou shalt live no longer, for I know thee,
thou great Thurs. Now come nearer, thou Midgardsorm, and let us
try our strength.’ The king rushed from the lypting, and was so
angry that he jumped out under the lower edge of the tent. Hörd
plunged into the sea from the rock, and the men on the watch on
board the king’s ship saw neither of them come up on the surface
afterwards” (Sögubrot, c. 3).

“He (Gjúki) had three sons, Gunnar, Högni, and Guttorm. Gudrún,
his daughter, was a most famous maiden.... Gjúki was married to
Grímhild, the witchcraft-knowing. King Budli was more powerful than
Gjúki, though both were powerful. Atli, the brother of Brynhild
(Budli’s daughter), was a cruel, large, swarthy man, but of an
imposing look, and the greatest warrior. Grímhild was a woman of
fierce mind. The Gjúkungs flourished much, mostly because of their
children who surpassed most others. Once Gudrún told her maidens
that she could not be merry. A woman asked her what was the
reason. She answered: ‘We did not get good luck in dreams, and the
sadness of my heart thou didst ask about is caused by a dream.’ The
woman said: ‘Tell me, and let it not sadden thee, for dreams often
forbode the weather.’ Gudrún said: ‘This one does not. I dreamt that
I saw a fine hawk on my hand; its feathers had a golden colour.’ The
woman said: ‘Many have heard of your beauty, wisdom, and
courtesy; the son of some king will ask thee in marriage.’ Gudrún
said: ‘Nothing did I think better than the hawk, and I would rather
have lost all my property than lose it.’ The woman said: ‘Thy
husband will be a great man, and thou wilt love him much.’ Gudrún
said: ‘It grieves me that I do not know who he is; let us go to
Brynhild, she will know it.’ They made ready with gold and great
beauty, and went with their maidens till they came to Brynhild’s hall,
which was adorned with gold, and stood on a mountain. When they
were seen, Brynhild was told that many women in gilded
waggons[438] drove towards the burgh. She replied: ‘That must be
Gudrún, Gjúki’s daughter; I dreamt of her this night; let us go out
and meet her; handsomer women (than she) cannot visit us.’ ...
Gudrún said: ‘I dreamt that many of us walked together from the
skemma and saw a large hart which far surpassed other deer; its
hair was of gold. We all wished to catch it, but I alone succeeded,
and I loved it above all other things. Then thou didst shoot it at my
knees, which was such a sorrow to me that I could scarcely bear it.
Then thou gavest a wolf’s cub to me, which besprinkled me with the
blood of my brothers.’ Brynhild answered: ‘I will explain what will
happen. Sigurd, whom I chose for my husband, will come to you;
Grímhild will give him a mixed mead which will cause heavy trials for
all of us; thou wilt marry him and quickly lose him; thou wilt marry
King Atli; thou wilt lose thy brothers and slay Atli.’ Gudrún said: ‘A
sore sorrow is it to us to know such things.’ They went away home
to King Gjúki” (Volsunga, c. 25).
The following dream foreboded the death of Gisli, who fell after one
of the most memorable defences recorded:—

“Gisli laid himself down and tried to sleep, while they (Aud and
Gudrid) were awake; and a sleep came over him. He dreamt that
two birds came to the house and fought by stealth; they were rather
larger than cock ptarmigans, and screamed rather loudly; they were
dyed all over in blood. He awoke after this. And (his wife) asked if
he had dreamt anything: ‘Thy sleep-journeys are not good now,’ said
she. He sang a song (describing what he had dreamt)” (Gisli
Sursson’s Saga, p. 95).

When the brothers Gunnar and Hogni were invited on a visit by King
Atli, by whom they were afterwards slain, their wives dreamt bad
dreams. Kostbera, Hogni’s wife, tells her dream to her husband, and
Glaumvör afterwards to hers, in order to dissuade them from going.
 Kostbera.

It seemed to me thy sheets

Burned in fire,
And that a high flame
Broke through my house.

Hogni.

Here lie linen clothes,

For which you care little;
They will soon burn
Where thou didst see sheets (burning).

Kostbera.

I thought a bear had come in here:

He broke the walls;
He shook his paws so that
We were frightened;
He caught many of us in his mouth,
So that we were helpless.
There was no little[439]
Hard pushing.

Hogni.

It is a storm that will rise,

And soon become violent;
What thou thought’st to be a white bear
Will be a rainstorm from the east.

Kostbera.

I thought an eagle flew in here

Through the length of the house:
That forebodes to us heavy fight;
It bespattered us all with blood.
Because of its threats, I thought
It was a shape of Atli’s.[440]

Hogni.

We kill cattle speedily;

Then we see blood.
It often means oxen
When we dream of eagles.
True is the mind of Atli,
Whatever thou mayest dream.
They ceased;
The talk ended.

Glaumvör.

I fancied a gallows made for thee,

And thou wert going to hang thereon;
I thought that snakes ate thee,
That I buried thee alive;
That the ragnarok came.
Guess what it was.

Glaumvör.

A bloody sword I saw,

Drawn out of thy shirt.
It is sad to tell of such a
Dream to a near kinsman.[441]
A spear, I thought,
Had pierced thy side;
Wolves howled
At both its ends.

Gunnar.

It is dogs that run,

Barking very loud;
The yelping of dogs often
Forebodes the flying of spears.

Glaumvör.

It seemed to me a river ran

Through the length of the house,
Roaring in anger,
Rushing over the benches,
Breaking the feet of your
Two brothers here.
The water spared nothing:
This may forebode something.
 Glaumvör.

It seemed to me that dead women

Came hither this night;
They were well dressed,
Wanted to choose thee;[442]
They bade thee come quickly
To their benches.
I say, the Disir[443]
Have abandoned thee.

(Atlamál.)

Never to dream was considered a misfortune.

“It happened that the son of a high-born woman lost his memory, as
if he was insane. His mother came to King Harald, and asked him for
good advice. The king advised her to go and see King Magnus, for
he knew there was none better in the land, and he would give
counsel. She went to King Magnus accordingly, who said, ‘Did you
not see King Harald?’ ‘I did,’ answered she, and told him what he
said. King Magnus added, ‘Nobody is wiser than King Harald in this
land, and he can give some advice if he have the will.’ King Harald,
on hearing this, said: ‘Then I shall give some. I think I see what ails
thy son: he is draumstoli,[444] for it is not the nature of a man that he
dream not. I advise thee to go to where King Magnus has washed
his hands, and let the boy drink from the water. Then you shall make
him sing. Though he is struck by sleepiness and yawning, you shall
not let him sleep, but take him to where the king has rested himself,
and let him fall asleep there, and then it is most likely that a dream
will appear to him.’ She did all as she had been told, and her son
slept there a while; and when he awoke he smiled and said, ‘I
dreamed, mother. It seemed as if the Kings Magnus and Harald
came to me, and each spoke in one of my ears.’ ‘Rememberest thou,
my son,’ asked she, ‘what each one of them said?’ ‘I do,’ he said.
‘King Magnus said, “Be as good as you can.” Not long after, King
Harald said, “Be most quick at learning, and retain in your memory
what you learn as best you can.”’ This boy afterwards became a
remarkable man.”

“King Halfdan (the Black) never dreamt. He sought advice from

Thorleif the Wise what to do. The latter told the king what he
himself used to do when he wanted to know something beforehand.
He used to lay himself to sleep in a pigsty, and was then always sure
of a dream. The king in consequence did the same, and also had a
dream” (Halfdan the Black, c. 7).

There was supposed to be a kind of magical sleep which came over

any one who was stung by a sleep-thorn (svefn-thorn) placed in the
ear. This magical sleep could not be broken until the sleep-thorn fell
out of the ear of the person under the spell.

“The king (Helgi) had drunk so heavily that he at once fell asleep on
the bed, and the queen seized her opportunity and stung him with a
sleep-thorn; when all was quiet she rose, shaved off all his hair and
besmeared him with tar, then she took a leather bag and put some
cloth in it in which she wrapped him up, and bade some men take
him down to his ships. She roused his men, saying that their king
had gone on board and wished to sail, as there was a fair wind.
They all jumped up as quickly as they could, but as they were drunk
did not know what they were doing; they went to the ships, and saw
no king but a very large leather bag. They wanted to see what was
in it and wait for the king, as they thought he would come later on.
When they untied it they found the king inside. The sleep-thorn
dropped down and he awoke from a bad dream, and was enraged
with the queen” (Hrólf Kraki’s Saga, c. 7).[445]
 CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN PAGANISM AND
CHRISTIANITY.

The old Asa belief and Christianity—Clinging to the old faith—

King Hakon the Christian and the heathen bœndr—Mixture of
the two creeds—Hakon attempts to Christianize the people—
Their opposition—Performance of ancient rites in secret after
the introduction of Christianity—Sceptics—Adaptation of
Christian ideas to the old belief—Cruelty of the earlier Christian
kings.

In the following accounts we see the struggle between Christianity

and the old Asa belief. Hakon, the foster-son of Athelstan, so named
because he had been fostered by that king in England, came back to
Norway a Christian, but his people clung to the old faith, and to
strengthen himself in the country he at first found it necessary to
observe the tenets of his religion in secret. He ordered the Yule-feast
to be celebrated at Christmas, and persuaded some of his best
friends to adopt Christianity.

“Hakon was a good Christian when he came to Norway; but as all

the land was heathen, and there were much sacrificing and many
chiefs, and he much needed the help and friendship of the people,
he decided to conceal his Christianity, and kept Sundays, and fasting
on Fridays, and the greatest festivals. He made it a law that the Yule
should begin at the same time as that of the Christians, and that
every man should have a certain measure of ale, or pay a fine, and
keep the days holy while Yule lasted. It formerly began on hökunótt
(the midwinter-night), and it was kept for three nights. He wanted to
make the people Christians, when he got established in the land and
had fully subjected it to himself. He sent to England for a bishop and
other priests. When they came to Norway, Hakon made known that
he would try to Christianize the land” (Hakon the Good’s Saga, c. 15;
Fornmanna Sögur, 1).

“Wise men say that some of those who settled in Iceland had been
baptized, and that most of those who came from the West (British
Islands) had been baptized. Among them are named Helgi the Lean,
Örlyg the Old, Helgi Bjóla, Jörund the Christian, Aud the Deep-
minded, Ketil, and others who came from the West; and some of
them kept Christianity well till their death-day; but their families
seldom preserved it, for some of their sons raised temples and
sacrificed, and all the land was heathen for nearly one hundred
winters” (Landnáma, v., c. 15).

Sigurd Thorisson, when a heathen, was accustomed to keep the

three feasts held during the year; he afterwards adapted them to
the new religion, which was destined finally to oust paganism.

“When he became a Christian he continued his custom with the

feasts. He then had in the autumn a great feast for his friends, and a
Yule-feast in the winter, and still invited many people; the third feast
he had at Easter-time (Páskar), and then also invited many. This he
continued while he lived” (St. Olaf’s Saga, 123).

But the struggle continued for some time, for the people were loth
to abandon the ancient faith, and Hakon was obliged, as king, to
assist at the sacrificial feast at the temple at Hladir. Sigurd jarl on
one occasion dedicated the first toast to Odin, and the king drank