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 Sample Final Exam #8
(Summer 2009; thanks to Victoria Kirst)

1. Array Mystery
Consider the following method:
public static void arrayMystery(int[] a) {
for (int i = 1; i < a.length - 1; i++) {
a[i] = a[i + 1] + a[i - 1];
}
}
Indicate in the right-hand column what values would be stored in the array after the method arrayMystery executes
if the integer array in the left-hand column is passed as a parameter to it.
Original Contents of Array Final Contents of Array
int[] a1 = {3, 7};
arrayMystery(a1); _____________________________

int[] a2 = {4, 7, 4, 2, 10, 9};

arrayMystery(a2); _____________________________

int[] a3 = {1, 5, 0, 0, 5, 0};

arrayMystery(a3); _____________________________

int[] a4 = {13, 0, -4, -2, 0, -1};

arrayMystery(a4); _____________________________

int[] a5 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 16};

arrayMystery(a5); _____________________________

1 of 8
2. Reference Semantics Mystery
(Missing; we didn't give this type of question that quarter.)

3. Inheritance Mystery
Assume that the following classes have been defined:

public class Denny extends John { public class Michelle extends John {
public void method1() { public void method1() {
System.out.print("denny 1 "); System.out.print("michelle 1 ");
} }
}
public String toString() {
return "denny " + super.toString(); public class John extends Cass {
} public void method2() {
} method1();
System.out.print("john 2 ");
public class Cass { }
public void method1() {
System.out.print("cass 1 "); public String toString() {
} return "john";
}
public void method2() { }
System.out.print("cass 2 ");
}

public String toString() {

return "cass";
}
}

Given the classes above, what output is produced by the following code?
Cass[] elements = {new Cass(), new Denny(), new John(), new Michelle()};
for (int i = 0; i < elements.length; i++) {
elements[i].method1();
System.out.println();
elements[i].method2();
System.out.println();
System.out.println(elements[i]);
System.out.println();
}

2 of 8
4. File Processing
Write a static method called runningSum that accepts as a parameter a Scanner holding a sequence of real numbers
and that outputs the running sum of the numbers followed by the maximum running sum. In other words, the nth
number that you report should be the sum of the first n numbers in the Scanner and the maximum that you report
should be the largest such value that you report. For example if the Scanner contains the following data:
3.25 4.5 -8.25 7.25 3.5 4.25 -6.5 5.25

your method should produce the following output:

running sum = 3.25 7.75 -0.5 6.75 10.25 14.5 8.0 13.25
max sum = 14.5
The first number reported is the same as the first number in the Scanner (3.25). The second number reported is the
sum of the first two numbers in the Scanner (3.25 + 4.5). The third number reported is the sum of the first three
numbers in the Scanner (3.25 + 4.5 + -8.25). And so on. The maximum of these values is 14.5, which is reported on
the second line of output. You may assume that there is at least one number to read.

3 of 8
5. File Processing
Write a static method named plusScores that accepts as a parameter a Scanner containing a series of lines that
represent student records. Each student record takes up two lines of input. The first line has the student's name and
the second line has a series of plus and minus characters. Below is a sample input:
Kane, Erica
--+-+
Chandler, Adam
++-+
Martin, Jake
+++++++
Dillon, Amanda
++-++-+-

The number of plus/minus characters will vary, but you may assume that at least one such character appears and that
no other characters appear on the second line of each pair. For each student you should produce a line of output with
the student's name followed by a colon followed by the percent of plus characters. For example, if the input above is
stored in a Scanner called input, the call of plusScores(input); should produce the following output:
Kane, Erica: 40.0% plus
Chandler, Adam: 75.0% plus
Martin, Jake: 100.0% plus
Dillon, Amanda: 62.5% plus

4 of 8
6. Array Programming
Write a method priceIsRight that accepts an array of integers bids and an integer price as parameters. The method
returns the element in the bids array that is closest in value to price without being larger than price. For example, if
bids stores the elements {200, 300, 250, 999, 40}, then priceIsRight(bids, 280) should return 250,
since 250 is the bid closest to 280 without going over 280. If all bids are larger than price, then your method should
return -1.
The following table shows some calls to your method and their expected results:
Arrays Returned Value
int[] a1 = {900, 885, 989, 1}; priceIsRight(a1, 880) returns 1
int[] a2 = {200}; priceIsRight(a2, 320) returns 200
int[] a3 = {500, 300, 241, 99, 501}; priceIsRight(a3, 50) returns -1
int[] a2 = {200}; priceIsRight(a2, 120) returns -1
You may assume there is at least 1 element in the array, and you may assume that the price and the values in bids will
all be greater than or equal to 1. Do not modify the contents of the array passed to your method as a parameter.

5 of 8
7. Array Programming
Write a static method named compress that accepts an array of integers a1 as a parameter and returns a new array
that contains only the unique values of a1. The values in the new array should be ordered in the same order they
originally appeared in. For example, if a1 stores the elements {10, 10, 9, 4, 10, 4, 9, 17}, then
compress(a1) should return a new array with elements {10, 9, 4, 17}.
The following table shows some calls to your method and their expected results:
Array Returned Value
int[] a1 = {5, 2, 5, 3, 2, 5}; compress(a1) returns {5, 2, 3}
int[] a2 = {-2, -12, 8, 8, 2, 12}; compress(a2) returns {-2, -12, 8, 2, 12}
int[] a3 = {4, 17, 0, 32, -3, 0, 0}; compress(a3) returns {4, 17, 0, 32, -3}
int[] a4 = {-2, -5, 0, 5, -92, -2, 0, 43}; compress(a4) returns {-2, -5, 0, 5, -92, 43}
int[] a5 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; compress(a5) returns {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
int[] a6 = {5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5}; compress(a6) returns {5}
int[] a7 = {}; compress(a7) returns {}
Do not modify the contents of the array passed to your method as a parameter.

6 of 8
8. Critters
Write a class Caterpillar that extends the Critter class from our assignment, along with its movement behavior.
Caterpillars move in an increasing NESW square pattern: 1 move north, 1 move east, 1 move west, 1 move south,
then 2 moves north, 2 moves east, etc., the square pattern growing larger and larger indefinitely. If a Caterpillar
runs into a piece of food, the Caterpillar eats the food and immediately restarts the NESW pattern. The size of the
Caterpillar’s movement is also reset back to 1 move in each direction again, and the increasing square pattern
continues as before until another piece of food is encountered.
Here is a sample movement pattern of a Caterpillar:
• north 1 time, east 1 time, south 1 time, west 1 time
• north 2 times, east 2 times, south 2 times, west 2 times
• north 3 times, east 3 times, south 3 times, west 3 times
• (runs into food)
• north 1 time, east 1 time, south 1 time, west 1 time
• north 2 times, east 1 time
• (runs into food)
• north 1 time
• (runs into food)
• north 1 time, east 1 time, south 1 time, west 1 time
• north 2 times, east 2 times, south 2 times, west 2 times
• (etc.)
Write your complete Caterpillar class below. All other aspects of Caterpillar besides eating and movement
behavior use the default critter behavior. You may add anything needed to your class (fields, constructors, etc.) to
implement this behavior appropriately.

7 of 8
9. Classes and Objects
Suppose that you are provided with a pre-written class Date as // Each Date object stores a single
described at right. (The headings are shown, but not the method // month/day such as September 19.
bodies, to save space.) Assume that the fields, constructor, and // This class ignores leap years.
methods shown are already implemented. You may refer to them
or use them in solving this problem if necessary. public class Date {
private int month;
Write an instance method named subtractWeeks that will be private int day;
placed inside the Date class to become a part of each Date
object's behavior. The subtractWeeks method accepts an // Constructs a date with
integer as a parameter and shifts the date represented by the Date // the given month and day.
public Date(int m, int d)
object backward by that many weeks. A week is considered to be
exactly 7 days. You may assume the value passed is non- // Returns the date's day.
negative. Note that subtracting weeks might cause the date to public int getDay()
wrap into previous months or years.
// Returns the date's month.
For example, if the following Date is declared in client code: public int getMonth()
Date d = new Date(9, 19);
// Returns the number of days
The following calls to the subtractWeeks method would // in this date's month.
modify the Date object's state as indicated in the comments. public int daysInMonth()
Remember that Date objects do not store the year. The date
before January 1st is December 31st. Date objects also ignore // Modifies this date's state
// so that it has moved forward
leap years.
// in time by 1 day, wrapping
Date d = new Date(9, 19); // around into the next month
d.subtractWeeks(1); // d is now 9/12 // or year if necessary.
d.subtractWeeks(2); // d is now 8/29 // example: 9/19 -> 9/20
d.subtractWeeks(5); // d is now 7/25 // example: 9/30 -> 10/1
d.subtractWeeks(20); // d is now 3/7 // example: 12/31 -> 1/1
d.subtractWeeks(110); // d is now 1/26
public void nextDay()
// (2 years prior)

// your method would go here

8 of 8
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The fauna of
the deep sea
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The fauna of the deep sea

Author: Sydney J. Hickson

Editor: Sir John Lubbock

Release date: January 24, 2021 [eBook #64380]

Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Richard Tonsing, Sharon Joiner, Bryan Ness, and the

Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
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Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FAUNA OF

THE DEEP SEA ***
Transcriber’s Note:
The cover image was created by the transcriber
and is placed in the public domain.

Modern Science Series

EDITED BY SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, BART., M. P.
THE FAUNA OF THE DEEP SEA

STOMIAS BOA. HALF NATURAL SIZE. FROM A DEPTH OF

1,900 METRES. (AFTER FILHOL.)
THE FAUNA OF THE DEEP SEA

BY

SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M. A.
(Cantab. et Oxon.)
D.SC. (LOND.), FELLOW OF DOWNING COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

WITH TWENTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1894.
Authorized Edition.
 PREFACE

The time may come when there will be no portion of the earth’s
surface that has not been surveyed and explored by man.
The work of enterprising travellers has now been carried on within
a measurable distance of the North Pole; the highest mountain
ranges are gradually succumbing to the geological surveyor; the
heart of Africa is giving up to us its secrets and its treasures, and
plans of all the desert places of the earth are being made and
tabulated.
The bottom of the deep sea was until quite recently one of these
terræ incognitæ. It was regarded by most persons, when it entered
into their minds to consider it at all, as one of those regions about
which we do not know anything, never shall know anything, and do
not want to know anything.
But the men of science fifty years ago were not disposed to take
this view of the matter. Pushing their inquiries as to the character of
the sea-fauna into deeper and deeper water, they at length demanded
information as to the existence of forms of animal life in the greatest
depths. Unable themselves to bear the heavy expenses involved in
such an investigation, they sought for and obtained the assistance of
the Government, in the form of national ships, for the work, and then
our knowledge of the depths of the great ocean may be said to have
commenced.
We know a good deal now, and in the course of time we may know
a great deal more, about this interesting region; but it is not one
which, in our generation at any rate, any human being will ever visit.
We may be able to plant the Union Jack on the summit of Mount
Everest, we may drag our sledges to the South Pole, and we may,
some day, be able to travel with ease and safety in the Great Sahara;
but we cannot conceive that it will ever be possible for us to invent a
diving-bell that will take a party of explorers to a depth of three and a
half miles of water. We may complete our survey of the ocean beds,
we may analyse the bottom muds and name and classify the animals
that compose their fauna, but there are many things that must
remain merely matters of conjecture. We shall never know, for
example, with any degree of certainty, how Bathypterois uses its long
feeler-like pectoral fins, nor the meaning of the fierce armature of
Lithodes ferox; why the deep-sea Crustacea are so uniformly
coloured red, or the intensity of the phosphorescent light emitted by
the Alcyonaria and Echinoderms. These and many others are and
must remain among the mysteries of the abyss.
Our present-day knowledge of the physical conditions of the
bottom of the deep sea and the animals that dwell there is by no
means inconsiderable.
It may be found in the reports of the scientific expeditions fitted
out by the English, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, and
American Governments, in numerous volumes devoted to this kind
of work, and in memoirs and notes scattered through the English
and foreign scientific journals.
It is the object of this little book to bring together in a small
compass some of the more important facts and considerations that
may be found in this great mass of literature, and to present them in
such a form that they may be of interest to those who do not possess
a specialist’s knowledge of genera and species.
When it was found that animals can and do live even at the
greatest depths of the ocean, the interest of naturalists was
concentrated on the solution of the following problems. Firstly, do
the animals constituting the fauna of the abyss exhibit any striking
and constant modification in correlation with the physical conditions
of their strange habitat? And, secondly, from what source was the
fauna of the abyss derived? Was it derived from the shallow shore
waters, or from the surface of the sea? Is it of very ancient origin, or
the result of, comparatively speaking, recent immigrations?
These questions cannot be answered in a few lines. Any views that
may be put forward regarding them require the support of a vast
array of facts and figures; but as the limits of this little book would
not permit of my giving these, I have endeavoured to select a few
only of those which bear most directly upon the points at issue.
 To overburden my work with the names of genera or the lists of
species would not, it seemed to me, either clear the issues or interest
the general reader. These may be found in the ‘Challenger’
monographs, and other books dealing with the subject.
Those who wish to pursue the subject further will find in the
‘Voyages of the “Blake,”’ by Alexander Agassiz, an excellent and
elaborate discussion of deep-sea problems, and numerous
illustrations of some of the most interesting forms of abysmal life.
In Volume XXIII. of the ‘Bulletin of Comparative Zoology’ the
same author gives a most interesting account of the deep-sea work
that has recently been done by the ‘Albatross’ expedition.
Filhol’s ‘La Vie au Fond des Mers’ is also a book that contains a
great deal of new and interesting matter, together with some
excellent coloured plates of deep-sea animals.
Sydney J. Hickson.
Downing College, Cambridge:
September, 1893.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. A Short History of the Investigations 1

II. The Physical Conditions of the Abyss 17

III. The Relations of the Abysmal Zone and the Origin

of its Fauna 45

IV. The Characters of the Deep-sea Fauna 59

V. The Protozoa, Cœlentera, and Echinoderma Of the

Deep Sea 86

VI. The Vermes and Mollusca of the Deep Sea 109

VII. The Arthropoda of the Deep Sea 123

VIII. The Fish of the Deep Sea 148

Index 167
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
 Stomias Boa. After Filhol, ‘La Vie au Fond des
Mers’ Frontispiece

FIG. PAGE
1 Diagram illustrating the Passage of an Ocean
Current across a Barrier 32

2 Sicyonis crassa. After Hertwig, ‘“Challenger”

Reports’ 36

3 Globigerina Ooze. After Agassiz, ‘Voyages of the

“Blake”’ 38

4 Section through the Eye of Serolis schythei. After

Beddard, ‘“Challenger” Reports’ 74

5 Section through the Eye of Serolis bromleyana.

After Beddard, ‘“Challenger” Reports’ 74

6 Opostomias micripnus. After Günther,

‘“Challenger” Reports’ 78

7 Head of Pachystomias microdon. After Von

Lendenfeld, ‘“Challenger” Reports’ 79

8 Section through the Anterior Sub-orbital

Phosphorescent Organ of Pachystomias
microdon. After Von Lendenfeld, ‘“Challenger”
Reports’ 80
 9 Challengeria Murrayi. After Haeckel,
‘“Challenger” Reports’ 90

10 Umbellula Güntheri. After Agassiz, ‘Voyages of the

“Blake”’ 97

11 Rhizocrinus lofotensis. After Carpenter,

‘“Challenger” Reports’ 100

12 Rhabdopleura normani. After Lankester,

‘Contributions to our Knowledge of
Rhabdopleura and Amphioxus’ 112

13 A Single Polypide of Rhabdopleura normani. After

Lankester, tom. cit. 114

14 Bathyteuthis abyssicola. After Hoyle,

‘“Challenger” Reports’ 121

15 Bathynomus giganteus. After Filhol, tom. cit. 131

16 Euphausia latifrons. After Sars, ‘“Challenger”

Reports’ 134

17 Bentheuphausia amblyops. After Sars,

‘“Challenger” Reports’ 134

18 Polycheles baccata. After Spence Bate,

‘“Challenger” Reports’ 136

19 Colossendeis arcuatus. After Filhol, tom. cit. 141

20 Hypobythius calycodes. After Moseley,

‘“Challenger” Reports’ 145

21 Melanocetus Murrayi. After Günther,

‘“Challenger” Reports’ 156
22 Saccopharynx ampullaceus. After Günther,
‘“Challenger” Reports’ 164
THE FAUNA OF THE DEEP SEA
 CHAPTER I
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE
INVESTIGATIONS

Our knowledge of the natural history of the deep seas may be said
to have commenced not more than fifty years ago. There are, it is
true, a few fragments of evidence of a fauna existing in depths of
more than a hundred fathoms to be found in the writings of the
earlier navigators, but the methods of deep-sea investigation were so
imperfect in those days that naturalists were disposed to believe that
in the abysses of the great oceans life was practically non-existent.
Even Edward Forbes just before his death wrote of an abyss ‘where
life is either extinguished or exhibits but a few sparks to mark its
lingering presence,’ but in justice to the distinguished naturalist it
should be remarked that he adds, ‘Its confines are yet undetermined,
and it is in the exploration of this vast deep-sea region that the finest
field for submarine discovery yet remains.’
Forbes was only expressing the general opinion of naturalists of
his time when he refers with evident hesitation to the existence of an
azoic region. His own dredging excursions in depths of over one
hundred fathoms proved the existence of many peculiar species that
were previously unknown to science. ‘They were like,’ he says, ‘the
few stray bodies of strange red men, which tradition reports to have
been washed on the shores of the Old World before the discovery of
the New, and which served to indicate the existence of unexplored
realms inhabited by unknown races, but not to supply information
about their character, habits, and extent.’
In the absence of any systematic investigation of the bottom of the
deep sea, previous to Forbes’s time the only information of deep-sea
animals was due to the accidental entanglement of certain forms in
sounding lines, or to the minute worms that were found in the mud
adhering to the lead.
As far back as 1753, Ellis described an Alcyonarian that was
brought up by a sounding line from a depth of 236 fathoms within
eleven degrees of the North Pole by a certain Captain Adriaanz of the
‘Britannia.’ The specimen was evidently an Umbellula, and it is
stated that the arms (i.e. Polyps) were of a bright yellow colour and
fully expanded when first brought on deck.
In 1819 Sir John Ross published an account of his soundings in
Baffin’s Bay, and mentions the existence of certain worms in the mud
brought from a depth of 1,000 fathoms, and a fine Caput Medusæ
(Astrophyton) entangled on the sounding line at a depth of 800
fathoms.
In the narrative of the voyage of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror,’
published in 1847, Sir James Ross calls attention to the existence of a
deep-sea fauna, and makes some remarks on the subject that in the
light of modern knowledge are of extreme interest. ‘I have no doubt,’
he says, ‘that from however great a depth we may be enabled to bring
up the mud and stones of the ocean, we shall find them teeming with
animal life.’ This firm belief in the existence of an abysmal fauna was
not, as it might appear from the immediate context of the passage I
have quoted, simply an unfounded speculation on his part, but was
evidently the result of a careful and deliberate chain of reasoning, as
may be seen from the following passage that occurs in another part
of the same book:—‘It is well known that marine animals are more
susceptible of change of temperature than land animals; indeed they
may be isothermally arranged with great accuracy. It will, however,
be difficult to get naturalists to believe that these fragile creatures
could possibly exist at the depth of nearly 2,000 fathoms below the
surface; yet as we know they can bear the pressure of 1,000 fathoms,
why may they not of two? We also know that several of the same
species of creatures inhabit the Arctic that we have fished up from
great depths in the Antarctic seas. The only way they could get from
one pole to the other must have been through the tropics; but the
temperature of the sea in those regions is such that they could not
exist in it, unless at a depth of nearly 2,000 fathoms. At that depth
they might pass from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean without a
variation of five degrees of temperature; whilst any land animal, at
the most favourable season, must experience a difference of fifty
degrees, and, if in the winter, no less than 150 degrees of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer—a sufficient reason why there are neither
quadrupeds, nor birds, nor land insects common to both regions.’
In the year 1845, Goodsir succeeded in obtaining a good haul in
Davis Straits, at a depth of 300 fathoms. It included Mollusca,
Crustacea, Asterids, Spatangi, and Corallines.
In 1848, Lieutenant Spratt read a paper at the meeting of the
British Association at Swansea, on the influence of temperature upon
the distribution of the fauna in the Ægean seas, and at the close of
this paper we find the following passage, confirming in a remarkable
way the work of previous investigators in the same field. He says:
‘The greatest depth at which I have procured animal life is 390
fathoms, but I believe that it exists much lower, although the general
character of the Ægean is to limit it to 300 fathoms; but as in the
deserts we have an oasis, so in the great depths of 300, 400, and
perhaps 500 fathoms we may have an oasis of animal life amidst the
barren fields of yellow clay dependent upon favourable and perhaps
accidental conditions, such as the growth of nullipores, thus
producing spots favourable for the existence and growth of animal
life.’
The next important discovery was that of the now famous
Globigerina mud by Lieutenants Craven and Maffit, of the American
Coast survey, in 1853, by the help of the sounding machine invented
by Brooke. This was reported upon by Professor Bailey.
Further light was thrown upon the deep-sea fauna by Dr. Wallich
in 1860, on board H.M.S. ‘Bulldog’, by the collection of thirteen star-
fish living at a depth of 1,260 fathoms.
Previous to this Torell, during two excursions to the Northern seas,
had proved the existence of an extensive marine fauna in 300
fathoms, and had brought up with the ‘Bulldog’ machine many forms
of marine invertebrates from depths of over 1,000 fathoms; but it
was not until 1863, when Professor Lovén read a report upon Torell’s
collections, that these interesting and valuable investigations became
known to naturalists.
Nor must mention be omitted of the remarkable investigations of
Sars and his son, the pioneers of deep-sea zoology on the coasts of
Norway, who, by laborious work commenced in 1849, failed
altogether to find any region in the deep water where animal life was
non-existent, and indeed were the first to predict an extensive
abysmal fauna all over the floor of the great oceans. One of the many
remarkable discoveries made by Sars was Rhizocrinus, a stalked
Crinoid.
Ever since that time the Norwegians and the Swedes have been
most energetic in their investigations, and the publications of the
results of the Norske Nord-havns expeditions are regarded by all
naturalists as among the most valuable contributions to our
knowledge of the deep-sea fauna.
Notwithstanding the previous discovery of many animals that
undoubtedly came from the abysmal depths of the ocean, there were
still some persons who found a difficulty in believing that animal life
could possibly exist under the enormous pressure of these great
depths. It was considered to be more probable that these animals
were caught by the dredge or sounding lines in their ascent or
descent; and that they were merely the representatives of a floating
fauna living a few fathoms below the surface.
The first direct proof of the existence of an invertebrate fauna in
deep seas was found by the expedition that was sent to repair the
submarine cable of the Mediterranean Telegraph Company. The
cable had broken in deep water, and a ship was sent out to examine
and repair the damage. When the broken cable was brought on deck,
it bore several forms of animal life that must have become attached
to it and lived at the bottom of the sea in water extending down to a
depth of 1,200 fathoms. Among other forms a Caryophyllia was
found attached to the cable at 1,100 fathoms, an oyster (Ostrea
cochlear), two species of Pecten, two gasteropods, and several
worms.
The discoveries that had been made indicating the existence of a
deep-sea fauna led to the commission of H.M. ships ‘Lightning’ and
‘Porcupine,’ and the systematic investigation that was made by the
naturalists on these vessels brought home to the minds of naturalists
the fact that there is not only an abysmal fauna, but that in places
this deep-sea fauna is very rich and extensive. The ‘Lightning’ was
despatched in the spring of 1868 and carried on its investigations in
the neighbourhood of the Faeroe Islands, but the vessel was not
suitable for the purpose and met with bad weather. The results,
however, were of extreme importance; for, besides solving many
important points concerning the distribution of ocean temperature,
‘it had been shown beyond question that animal life is both varied
and abundant at depths in the ocean down to 650 fathoms at least,
notwithstanding the extraordinary conditions to which animals are
there exposed.’
Among the remarkable animals dredged by the ‘Lightning’ were
the curious Echinoderm, Brisinga coronata, previously discovered
by Sars, and the Hexactinellid sponges, Holtenia and Hyalonema,
the Crinoids Rhizocrinus and Antedon celticus, and the Pennatulid
Bathyptilum Carpenteri, not to mention numerous Foraminifera
new to science.
In the spring of the following year, 1869, the Lords Commissioners
of the Admiralty despatched the surveying vessel ‘Porcupine’ to carry
on the work commenced by the ‘Lightning.’
The first cruise was on the west coast of Ireland, the second cruise
to the Bay of Biscay, where dredging was satisfactorily carried on to a
depth of 2,435 fathoms, and the third in the Channel between Faeroe
and Scotland.
The dredging in 2,435 fathoms was quite successful, and the
dredge contained several Mollusca, including new species of
Dentalium, Pecten, Dacrydium, &c., numerous Crustacea and a few
Annelids and Gephyrea, besides Echinoderma and Protozoa. A
satisfactory dredging was also made in 1,207 fathoms.
The third cruise was also successful and brought many new species
to light, including the Porocidaris purpurata, and a remarkable
heart urchin, Pourtalesia Jeffreysi.
Concerning Pourtalesia Sir Wyville Thomson says:—
‘The remarkable point is that, while we had so far as we were
aware no living representative of this peculiar arrangement of what
is called “disjunct” ambulacra, we have long been acquainted with a
fossil family—the Dysasteridæ—possessing this character. Many
species of the genera Dysaster, Collyrites, &c., are found from the
lower oolite to the white chalk, but there the family had previously
been supposed to have become extinct.’
 The discovery of two new Crinoids led to the anticipation that the
Crinoidea, the remarkable group of Echinoderma, supposed at the
time to be on the verge of extinction, probably form rather an
important element in the abysmal fauna.
One of the most interesting results was the discovery of three
genera in deep water, Calveria, Neolampas and Pourtalesia, almost
immediately after they were discovered by Pourtales in deep water
on the coasts of Florida, showing thus a wide lateral distribution and
suggesting a vast abysmal fauna.
A year before the ‘Lightning’ was despatched, Count Pourtales had
commenced a series of investigations of the deep-sea fauna off the
coast of Florida. The first expedition started in 1867 from Key West
for the purpose of taking some dredgings between that port and
Havana. Unfortunately yellow fever broke out on board soon after
they started, and only a few dredgings were taken. However, the
results obtained were of such importance that they encouraged
Pourtales to undertake another expedition and enabled him to say
very positively ‘that animal life exists at great depths, in as great a
diversity and as great an abundance as in shallow water.’
In the following years, 1868 and 1869, the expeditions were more
successful, and many important new forms were found in water
down to 500 fathoms. Perhaps the most interesting result obtained
was the discovery of Bourguetticrinus of D’Orbigny; it may even be
the species named by him which occurs fossil in a recent formation
in Guadeloupe.
By this time the interest of scientific men was thoroughly excited
over the many problems connected with this new field of work. The
prospect of obtaining a large number of new and extremely curious
animals, the faint hope that living Trilobites, Cystids, and other
extinct forms might be discovered, and lastly the desire to handle
and investigate great masses of pure protoplasm in the form of the
famous but unfortunately non-existent Bathybius, induced some
men of wealth and leisure to spend their time in deep-sea dredging,
and stimulated the governments of some civilised countries to lend
their aid in the support of expeditions for the deep-sea survey.
Mr. Marshall Hall’s yacht, the ‘Norma,’ was employed for some
time in this work, and an extensive collection of deep-sea animals
was made. About the same time Professor L. Agassiz was busy on
board the American ship, the ‘Hassler,’ in continuing the work of
Count Pourtales, and later on the Germans fitted out the ‘Gazelle,’
and the French the still more famous ‘Travailleur’ and ‘Talisman’
expeditions. Nor must we omit to mention in this connection the
cruise of the Italian vessel, the ‘Vittor Pessani,’ nor those of the
British surveying vessels, the ‘Knight Errant’ and the ‘Triton,’ and the
American vessels, ‘The Blake’ and the ‘Fish Hawk.’
But of all these expeditions, by far the most complete in all the
details of equipment, and the arrangements made for the publication
of the results, was the expedition fitted out in 1873 by the British
Government. The voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ is so familiar to all
who take an interest in the progress of scientific discovery, that it is
not necessary to do more than make a passing mention of it in this
place. The excellent books that were written by Wyville Thomson, by
Moseley, and by other members of the staff, have made the general
reader familiar with the narrative of that remarkable cruise and the
most striking of the many scientific discoveries that were made;
while the numerous large monographs that have been published
during the past fourteen years give opportunities to the naturalist of
obtaining all the requisite information concerning the detailed
results of the expedition.
The expenditure of the large sum of money upon this expedition
and the publication of its reports has been abundantly justified. The
information obtained by the ‘Challenger’ will be for many years to
come the nucleus of our knowledge of the deep-sea fauna, the centre
around which all new facts will cluster, and the guide for further
investigations.
To say that the ‘Challenger’ accomplished all that was expected or
required would be to over-estimate the value of this great expedition,
but nevertheless it is difficult for us, even now, thoroughly to grasp
the importance of the results obtained or to analyse and classify the
numerous and very remarkable facts that were gained during her
four years’ cruise.
It is, of course, impossible, in a few lines, to give a summary of the
more important of the Natural History results of the ‘Challenger’
expedition. Besides proving the existence of a fauna in the sea at all
depths and in all regions, the expedition further proved that the
abysmal fauna, taken as a whole, does not possess characters similar
to those of the fauna of any of the secondary or even tertiary rocks. A
few forms, it is true, known to us up to that time only as fossils, were
found to be still living in the great depths, but a large majority of the
animals of these regions were found to be new and specially modified
forms of the families and genera inhabiting shallow waters of
modern times. No Trilobites, no Blastoids, no Cystoids, no new
Ganoids, and scarcely any deep-sea Elasmobranchs were brought to
light, but the fauna was found to consist mainly of Teleosteans,
Crustacea, Cœlentera, and other creatures unlike anything known to
have existed in Palæozoic times, specially modified in structure for
their life in the great depths of the ocean.
In 1876 the S.S. ‘Vöringin’ was chartered by the Norwegian
Government and was dispatched to investigate the tract of ocean
lying between Norway, the Faeroe islands, Jan Mayen, and
Spitzbergen. The investigations extended over three years, the vessel
returning to Bergen in the winter months.
The civilian staff of the ‘Vöringin’ included Professors H. Mohn,
Danielssen, and G. O. Sars, and the expedition was successful in
obtaining a large number of animals from deep water by means of
the dredge and tangles and by the trawl.
The results of this expedition have been published in a series of
large quarto volumes under the general title of the Norske Nord-
havns Expedition.
The most interesting forms brought to light by the Norwegians are
the two genera Fenja and Aegir, animals possessing the general form
of sea anemones but distinguished from all Cœlenterates by the
presence of a continuous and straight gut reaching from the mouth
to the aboral pores which completely shuts off the cœlenteron or
general body cavity from the stomodæum.
In more recent times the work has been by no means neglected.
With the advantage of employing many modern improvements in the
dredges and trawls in use, the American steamer, the ‘Albatross,’ has
been engaged in a careful investigation of the deep-sea fauna of the
eastern slopes of the Pacific Ocean, while at the same time Her
Majesty’s surveying vessel, the ‘Investigator,’ has been obtaining
some interesting and valuable results from a survey of the deep
waters of the Indian Ocean. But our knowledge of this vast and
wonderful region is still in its infancy. We have gathered, as it were,
only a few grains from a great unknown desert. It is true that we may
not for many years, if ever, obtain any results that will cause the
same deep interest and excitement to the scientific public as those
obtained by the first great national expeditions, but there are still
many important scientific problems that may be and will be solved
by steady perseverance in this field of work, and if we can only obtain
the same generous support from public institutions and from those
in charge of national funds that we have received in the past two
decades, many more important facts will doubtless be brought to
light.
 CHAPTER II
THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE ABYSS

It is not surprising that the naturalists of the early part of the

present century could not believe in the existence of a fauna at the
bottom of the deep seas.
The extraordinary conditions of such a region—the enormous
pressure, the absolute darkness, the probable absence of any
vegetable life from want of direct sunlight—might very well have
been considered sufficient to form an impassable barrier to the
animals migrating from the shallow waters and to prevent the
development of a fauna peculiarly its own.
The fragmentary accounts of animals brought up by sounding lines
from great depths might, it is true, have thrown doubts on the
current views; but they were not of sufficient importance in
themselves, nor were the observations made with such regard to the
possibility of error, as to withstand the critical remarks that were
made to explain them away.
The absence of any evidence obtained by accurate systematic
research, together with the consideration of the physical character of
the ocean bed, were quite sufficient to lead scientific men of that
period to doubt the existence of any animal life in water deeper than
a few hundred fathoms.
We now know, however, that there is a very considerable fauna at
enormous depths in all the great oceans, and we have acquired,
moreover, considerable information concerning some of those
peculiar physical conditions of the abyss that fifty years ago were
merely matters of speculation among scientific men.
The relation between animals and their environment is now a
question of such great interest and importance that it is necessary in
any description of the fauna of a particular region to consider its
physical conditions and the influence that it may be supposed to
have had in producing the characteristics of the fauna.
The peculiar physical conditions of the deep seas may be briefly
stated to be these: It is absolutely dark so far as actual sunlight is
concerned, the temperature is only a few degrees above freezing
point, the pressure is enormous, there is little or no movement of the
water, the bottom is composed of a uniform fine soft mud, and there
is no plant life.
All of these physical conditions we can appreciate except the
enormous pressure. Absolute darkness we know, the temperature of
the deep seas is not an extraordinary one, the absence of movement
in the water and the fine soft mud are conditions that we can readily
appreciate; but the pressure is far greater than anything we can
realise.
At a depth of 2,500 fathoms the pressure is, roughly speaking, two
and a half tons per square inch—that is to say, several times greater
than the pressure exerted by the steam upon the piston of our most
powerful engines. Or, to put the matter in other words, the pressure
per square inch upon the body of every animal that lives at the
bottom of the Atlantic Ocean is about twenty-five times greater than
the pressure that will drive a railway train.
A most beautiful experiment to illustrate the enormous force of
this pressure was made during the voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger.’ I
give the description of it in the words of the late Professor Moseley.
‘Mr. Buchanan hermetically sealed up at both ends a thick glass
tube full of air, several inches in length. He wrapped this sealed tube
in flannel, and placed it, so wrapped up, in a wide copper tube, which
was one of those used to protect the deep-sea thermometers when
sent down with the sounding apparatus.
‘This copper tube was closed by a lid fitting loosely, and with holes
in it, and the copper bottom of the tube similarly had holes bored
through it. The water thus had free access to the interior of the tube
when it was lowered into the sea, and the tube was necessarily
constructed with that object in view, in order that in its ordinary use
the water should freely reach the contained thermometer.
 ‘The copper case containing the sealed glass tube was sent down to
a depth of 2,000 fathoms and drawn up again. It was then found that
the copper wall of the case was bulged and bent inwards opposite the
place where the glass tube lay, just as if it had been crumpled inward
by being violently squeezed.
‘The glass tube itself, within its flannel wrapper, was found when
withdrawn, reduced to a fine powder, like snow almost. What had
happened was that the sealed glass tube, when sinking to gradually
increasing depths, had held out long against the pressure, but this at
last had become too great for the glass to sustain, and the tube had
suddenly given way and been crushed by the violence of the action to
a fine powder. So violent and rapid had been the collapse that the
water had not had time to rush in by means of the holes at both ends
of the copper cylinder and thus fill the empty space left behind by the
collapse of the glass tube, but had instead crushed in the copper wall
and brought equilibrium in that manner. The process is exactly the
reverse of an explosion, and is termed by Sir Wyville Thomson an
“implosion.”’
It is but reasonable to suppose that the ability to sustain this
enormous pressure can only be acquired by animals after
generations of gradual migrations from shallow waters. Those forms
that are brought up by the dredge from the depths of the ocean are
usually killed and distorted by the enormous and rapid diminution of
pressure in their journey to the surface, and it is extremely probable
that shallow-water forms would be similarly killed and crushed out
of shape were they suddenly plunged into very deep water. The fish
that live at these enormous depths are in consequence of the
enormous pressure liable to a curious form of accident. If, in chasing
their prey or for any other reason, they rise to a considerable
distance above the floor of the ocean, the gases of their swimming
bladder become considerably expanded and their specific gravity
very greatly reduced. Up to a certain limit the muscles of their bodies
can counteract the tendency to float upwards and enable the fish to
regain its proper sphere of life at the bottom; but beyond that limit
the muscles are not strong enough to drive the body downwards, and
the fish, becoming more and more distended as it goes, is gradually
killed on its long and involuntary journey to the surface of the sea.
The deep-sea fish, then, are exposed to a danger that no other
animals in this world are subject to, namely that of tumbling
upwards.
That such accidents do occasionally occur is evidenced by the fact
that some fish, which are now known to be true deep-sea forms, were
discovered dead and floating on the surface of the ocean long before
our modern investigations were commenced.
Until quite recently, every one agreed that no rays of sunlight
could possibly penetrate the sea to a greater depth than a few
hundred fathoms.
Moseley says that ‘probably all is dark below 200 fathoms
excepting in so far as light is given out by phosphorescent animals,’
and Wyville Thomson speaks of the ‘utter darkness of the deep-sea
bottom.’
Within the last few years a few authors have maintained that it is
quite possible that a few rays of sunlight do penetrate even to the
greatest depths of the ocean—a view mainly based on the fact that so
many deep-sea animals possess extremely perfect and complicated
eyes and very brilliant colours. Verrill says: ‘It seems to me probable
that more or less sunlight does actually penetrate to the greatest
depths of the ocean, in the form of a soft sea-green light, perhaps at
2,000 or 3,000 fathoms equal in intensity to our partially moonlight
nights and possibly at the greatest depths equal only to starlight. It
must be remembered that in the deep sea far away from land the
water is far more transparent than near the coast.’ Packard is of a
similar opinion.
There seem to me to be very slight grounds for this view. The fact
that, comparatively speaking, shallow-water fish avoid nets that are
rendered phosphorescent by entangled jelly-fish does not justify us
in assuming that deep-sea fish avoid regions where there are
phosphorescent Gorgonians or Pennatulids. It is not by any means
certain that fish avoid sunken nets on account of their
phosphorescence. Most fish possess, as is well known, a very acute
sense of smell, and it is very probable that they avoid such nets on
account of the putrid odours of the dead animals that remain
attached to them.
Nor is there much strength in the further argument that it can
hardly be possible that there can be an amount of phosphorescent
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