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Introduction to Java Programming Brief 8th Edition
Edition Y. Daniel Liang Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Y. Daniel Liang
ISBN(s): 9780132130790, 0132130793
Edition: 8th Edition
File Details: PDF, 9.96 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
INTRODUCTION TO

JAVA
TM

PROGRAMMING
This page intentionally left blank
 INTRODUCTION TO

JAVA
TM

PROGRAMMING
BRIEF VERSION

Eighth Edition

Y. Daniel Liang
Armstrong Atlantic State University

Prentice Hall
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
Vice President and Editorial Director, ECS: Marcia J. Horton
Editor in Chief, Computer Science: Michael Hirsch
Executive Editor: Tracy Dunkelberger
Assistant Editor: Melinda Haggerty
Editorial Assistant: Allison Michael
Vice President, Production: Vince O’Brien
Senior Managing Editor: Scott Disanno
Production Editor: Irwin Zucker
Senior Operations Specialist: Alan Fischer
Marketing Manager: Erin Davis
Marketing Assistant: Mack Patterson
Art Director: Kenny Beck
Cover Image: Male Ruby-throated Hummingbird / Steve Byland / Shutterstock;
Hummingbird, Nazca Lines / Gary Yim / Shutterstock
Art Editor: Greg Dulles
Media Editor: Daniel Sandin

Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007, 2004 by Pearson Higher Education. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 07458.
All right reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and
permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval sys-
tem, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To
obtain permission(s) to use materials from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Higher Education,
Permissions Department, 1 Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.

The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the
development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and
publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation
contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential
damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-213079-0
ISBN-10: 0-13-213079-3
 This book is dedicated to Dr. S. K. Dhall and
Dr. S. Lakshmivarahan of the University of Oklahoma,
who inspired me in teaching and research. Thank you for being
my mentors and advisors.

To Samantha, Michael, and Michelle

This page intentionally left blank
PREFACE
This book is a brief version of Introduction to Java Programming, Comprehensive Version, brief version
8E. This version is designed for an introductory programming course, commonly known as comprehensive version
CS1. This version contains the first twenty chapters in the comprehensive version.
This book uses the fundamentals-first approach and teaches programming concepts and
techniques in a problem-driven way.
The fundamentals-first approach introduces basic programming concepts and techniques fundamentals-first
before objects and classes. My own experience, confirmed by the experiences of many col-
leagues, demonstrates that new programmers in order to succeed must learn basic logic and
fundamental programming techniques such as loops and stepwise refinement. The funda-
mental concepts and techniques of loops, methods, and arrays are the foundation for pro-
gramming. Building the foundation prepares students to learn object-oriented programming,
GUI, database, and Web programming.
Problem-driven means focused on problem-solving rather than syntax. We make introduc- problem-driven
tory programming interesting by using interesting problems. The central thread of this book
is on solving problems. Appropriate syntax and library are introduced to support the writing
of a program for solving the problems. To support teaching programming in a problem-
driven way, the book provides a wide variety of problems at various levels of difficulty to
motivate students. In order to appeal to students in all majors, the problems cover many appli-
cation areas in math, science, business, financials, gaming, animation, and multimedia.

What’s New in This Edition?

This edition substantially improves Introduction to Java Programming, Seventh Edition. The
major improvements are as follows:

■ This edition is completely revised in every detail to enhance clarity, presentation, content, complete revision
examples, and exercises.

■ In the examples and exercises, which are provided to motivate and stimulate student inter-
est in programming, one-fifth of the problems are new. new problems

■ In the previous edition, console input was covered at the end of Chapter 2. The new edi- early console input
tion introduces console input early in Chapter 2 so that students can write interactive pro-
grams early.

■ The hand trace box is added for many programs in early chapters to help noive students hand trace box
to read and trace programs.

■ Single-dimensional arrays and multidimensional arrays are covered in two chapters to multidimensional arrays
give instructors the flexibility to cover multidimensional arrays later.

■ The case study for the Sudoku problem has been moved to the Companion Website. A Sudoku problem simplified
more pedagogically effective simple version of the Sudoku problem is presented instead.

■ The design of the API for Java GUI programming is an excellent example of how the
object-oriented principle is applied. Students learn better with concrete and visual exam-
ples. So basic GUI now precedes the introduction of abstract classes and interfaces. The basic GUI earlier
instructor, however, can still choose to cover abstract classes and interfaces before GUI.

vii
viii Preface
exception handling earlier ■ Exception handling is covered before abstract classes and interfaces. The instructor can
still choose to cover exception handling later.

■ Chapter 12, “Object-Oriented Design and Patterns,” in the previous edition has been
design guidelines replaced by spreading the design guidelines and patterns into several chapters so that these
topics can be covered in appropriate context.

Learning Strategies
A programming course is quite different from other courses. In a programming course, you
learn from mistakes learn from examples, from practice, and from mistakes. You need to devote a lot of time to
writing programs, testing them, and fixing errors.
programmatic solution For first-time programmers, learning Java is like learning any high-level programming lan-
guage. The fundamental point is to develop the critical skills of formulating programmatic
solutions for real problems and translating them into programs using selection statements,
loops, methods, and arrays.
Once you acquire the basic skills of writing programs using loops, methods, and arrays,
object-oriented programming you can begin to learn how to develop large programs and GUI programs using the object-
oriented approach.
When you know how to program and you understand the concept of object-oriented pro-
Java API gramming, learning Java becomes a matter of learning the Java API. The Java API establish-
es a framework for programmers to develop applications using Java. You have to use the
classes and interfaces in the API and follow their conventions and rules to create applications.
The best way to learn the Java API is to imitate examples and do exercises.

Pedagogical Features
The book uses the following elements to get the most from the material:

■ Objectives list what students should have learned from the chapter. This will help them
determine whether they have met the objectives after completing the chapter.
■ Introduction opens the discussion with representative problems to give the reader an
overview of what to expect from the chapter.
■ Problems carefully chosen and presented in an easy-to-follow style, teach problem solv-
ing and programming concepts. The book uses many small, simple, and stimulating exam-
ples to demonstrate important ideas.
■ Chapter Summary reviews the important subjects that students should understand and
remember. It helps them reinforce the key concepts they have learned in the chapter.
■ Review Questions are grouped by sections to help students track their progress and eval-
uate their learning.
■ Programming Exercises are grouped by sections to provide students with opportunities
to apply on their own the new skills they have learned. The level of difficulty is rated as
easy (no asterisk), moderate (*), hard (**), or challenging (***). The trick of learning
programming is practice, practice, and practice. To that end, the book provides a great
many exercises.
■ LiveLab is a programming course assessment and management system. Students can
submit programs/quizzes online. The system automatically grades the programs/quizzes
and gives students instant feedback.

■ Notes, Tips, and Cautions are inserted throughout the text to offer valuable advice and
insight on important aspects of program development.
 Preface ix

Note
Provides additional information on the subject and reinforces important concepts.

Tip
Teaches good programming style and practice.

Caution
Helps students steer away from the pitfalls of programming errors.

Design Guide
Provides the guidelines for designing programs.

Flexible Chapter Orderings

The book is designed to provide flexible chapter orderings to enable GUI, exception handling,
and recursion to be covered earlier or later. The diagram shows the chapter dependencies.

Part I: Fundamentals of Part II: Object-Oriented Part III: GUI Programming

Programming Programming

Chapter 1 Introduction to Chapter 8 Objects and Classes Chapter 12 GUI Basics

Computers, Programs, and
Java
Chapter 9 Strings and Text I/O Chapter 15 Graphics

Chapter 2 Elementary
Programming Chapter 10 Thinking in Objects Chapter 16 Event-Driven
Programming

Chapter 3 Selections Chapter 11 Inheritance and

Polymorphism Chapter 17 Creating Graphical
User Interfaces
Chapter 4 Loops
Chapter 13 Exception
Handling Chapter 18 Applets and
Multimedia
Chapter 5 Methods
Chapter 14 Abstract Classes
and Interfaces
Chapter 6 Single-Dimensional
Arrays
Chapter 19 Binary I/O

Chapter 7 Multidimensional
Arrays

Chapter 20 Recursion

Organization of the Book

The chapters in the brief version can be grouped into three parts that, taken together, form a
solid introduction to Java programming. Because knowledge is cumulative, the early chapters
provide the conceptual basis for understanding programming and guide students through
x Preface
simple examples and exercises; subsequent chapters progressively present Java programming
in detail, culminating with the development of comprehensive Java applications.

Part I: Fundamentals of Programming (Chapters 1–7, 20)

The first part of the book is a stepping stone, preparing you to embark on the journey of learn-
ing Java. You will begin to know Java (Chapter 1), and will learn fundamental programming
techniques with primitive data types, variables, constants, expressions, and operators (Chapter
2), control statements (Chapters 3–4), methods (Chapter 5), and arrays (Chapters 6–7). After
Chapter 6, you may jump to Chapter 20 to learn how to write recursive methods for solving
inherently recursive problems.

Part II: Object-Oriented Programming (Chapters 8–11, 13–14, 19)

This part introduces object-oriented programming. Java is an object-oriented programming
language that uses abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism to provide great
flexibility, modularity, and reusability in developing software. You will learn programming
with objects and classes (Chapters 8–10), class inheritance (Chapter 11), polymorphism
(Chapter 11), exception handling (Chapter 13), abstract classes (Chapter 14), and interfaces
(Chapter 14). Processing strings will be introduced in Chapter 9 along with text I/O. Binary
I/O is introduced in Chapter 19.

Part III: GUI Programming (Chapters 12, 15–18)

This part introduces elementary Java GUI programming in Chapters 12 and 15–18. Major
topics include GUI basics (Chapter 12), drawing shapes (Chapter 15), event-driven program-
ming (Chapter 16), creating graphical user interfaces (Chapter 17), and writing applets
(Chapter 18). You will learn the architecture of Java GUI programming and use the GUI com-
ponents to develop applications and applets from these elementary GUI chapters.

Java Development Tools

You can use a text editor, such as the Windows Notepad or WordPad, to create Java programs
and to compile and run the programs from the command window. You can also use a Java
IDE tutorials development tool, such as TextPad, NetBeans, or Eclipse. These tools support an integrated
development environment (IDE) for rapidly developing Java programs. Editing, compiling,
building, executing, and debugging programs are integrated in one graphical user interface.
Using these tools effectively can greatly increase your programming productivity. TextPad is
a primitive IDE tool. NetBeans and Eclipse are more sophisticated, but they are easy to use if
you follow the tutorials. Tutorials on TextPad, NetBeans, and Eclipse can be found in the sup-
plements on the Companion Website.

LiveLab
This book is accompanied by an improved faster Web-based course assessment and manage-
ment system. The system has three main components:

■ Automatic Grading System: It can automatically grade exercises from the text or created
by instructors.

■ Quiz Creation/Submission/Grading System: It enables instructors to create/modify

quizzes that students can take and be graded upon automatically.

■ Tracking grades, attendance, etc: The system enables the students to track grades and
instructors to view the grades of all students, and to track attendance.
 Preface xi
The main features of the Automatic Grading System are as follows:

■ Allows students to compile, run and submit exercises. (The system checks whether their
program runs correctly—students can continue to run and submit the program before the
due date.)
■ Allows instructors to review submissions; run programs with instructor test cases; correct
them; and provide feedback to students.
■ Allows instructors to create/modify their own exercises, create public and secret test cases,
assign exercises, and set due dates for the whole class or for individuals.
■ All the exercises in the text can be assigned to students. Additionally, LiveLab provides
extra exercises that are not printed in the text.
■ Allows instructors to sort and filter all exercises and check grades (by time frame, student,
and/or exercise).
■ Allows instructors to delete students from the system.
■ Allows students and instructors to track grades on exercises.

The main features of the Quiz System are as follows:

■ Allows instructors to create/modify quizzes from test bank or a text file or to create com-
plete new tests online.
■ Allows instructors to assign the quizzes to students and set a due date and test time limit
for the whole class or for individuals.
■ Allows students and instructors to review submitted quizzes.
■ Allows students and instructors to track grades on quizzes.

Video Notes are Pearson’s new visual tool designed for teaching students key programming con-
cepts and techniques. These short step-by-step videos demonstrate how to solve problems from
design through coding. Video Notes allows for self-paced instruction with easy navigation includ-
ing the ability to select, play, rewind, fast-forward, and stop within each Video Note exercise.
Video Note margin icons in your textbook let you know what a Video Notes video is avail-
able for a particular concept or homework problem.
Video Notes are free with the purchase of a new textbook. To purchase access to Video
Notes, please go to www.pearsonhighered.com/liang.

Student Resource Materials

The student resources can be accessed through the Publisher’s Web site
(www.pearsonhighered.com/liang) and the Companion Web site (www.cs.armstrong.edu/liang/intro8e).
The resources include:
■ Answers to review questions
■ Solutions to even-numbered programming exercises
■ Source code for book examples
■ Interactive self-test (organized by chapter sections)
■ LiveLab
■ Resource links
■ Errata
xii Preface
■ Video Notes
■ Web Chapters
To access the Video Notes and Web Chapters, students must log onto www.pearsonhighered.com/liang
and use the access card located in the front of the book to register and access the material. If there is
no access card in the front of this textbook, students can purchase access by visiting
www.pearsonhighered.com/liang and selecting purchase access to premium content.

Additional Supplements
The text covers the essential subjects. The supplements extend the text to introduce addition-
al topics that might be of interest to readers. The supplements listed in this table are available
from the Companion Web site.

Supplements on the Companion Web site

Part I General Supplements N Design Patterns

A Glossary O Text I/O Prior to JDK 1.5 (Reader and
B Installing and Configuring JDK Writer Classes)
C Compiling and Running Java from the P Assertions
Command Window Q Packaging and Deploying Java Projects
D Java Coding Style Guidelines R Java Web Start
E Creating Desktop Shortcuts for Java S GridBagLayout | OverlayLayout |
Applications on Windows SpringLayout
F Using Packages to Organize the Classes T Networking Using Datagram Protocol
in the Text U Creating Internal Frames
V Pluggable Look and Feel
Part II IDE Supplements
W UML Graphical Notations
A TextPad Tutorial
X Testing Classes Using JUnit
B NetBeans Tutorial | One Page Startup
Y JNI
Instruction
Z The StringTokenizer Class
C Learning Java Effectively with
NetBeans Part IV Database Supplements
D Eclipse Tutorial | One Page Startup A SQL Statements for Creating and
Instruction Initializing Tables Used in the Book
E Learning Java Effectively with Eclipse B MySQL Tutorial
C Oracle Tutorial
Part III Java Supplements
D Microsoft Access Tutorial
A Java Characteristics
E Introduction to Database Systems
B Discussion on Operator and Operand
F Relational Database Concept
Evaluations
G Database Design
C The & and | Operators
H SQL Basics
D Bitwise Operations
I Advanced SQL
E Statement Labels with break and continue
F Enumerated Types Part V Web Programming Supplements
G Packages A HTML and XHTML Tutorial
H Regular Expressions B CSS Tutorial
I Formatted Strings C XML
J The Methods in the Object Class D Java and XML
K Hiding Data Fields and Static Methods E Tomcat Tutorial
L Initialization Blocks F More Examples on JSF and Visual Web
M Extended Discussions on Overriding Development
Methods
 Preface xiii

Instructor Resource Materials

The instructor resources can be accessed through the Publisher’s Web site
(www.pearsonhighered.com/liang) and the Companion Web site (www.cs.armstrong.edu/liang/intro8e).
For username and password information to the Liang 8e site, please contact your Pearson
Representative.
The resources include:
■ PowerPoint lecture slides with source code and run program capacity
■ Instructor solutions manual
■ Computerized test generator
■ Sample exams using multiple choice and short answer questions, write and trace pro-
grams, and correcting programming errors.
■ LiveLab
■ Errata
■ Video Notes
■ Web Chapters

To access the Video Notes and Web Chapters, instructors must log onto www.pearsonhighered.com/liang
and register.

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Armstrong Atlantic State University for enabling me to teach what I
write and for supporting me in writing what I teach. Teaching is the source of inspiration for
continuing to improve the book. I am grateful to the instructors and students who have offered
comments, suggestions, bug reports, and praise.
This book has been greatly enhanced thanks to outstanding reviews for this and previous
editions. The reviewers are: Elizabeth Adams (James Madison University), Syed Ahmed
(North Georgia College and State University), Omar Aldawud (Illinois Institute of
Technology), Yang Ang (University of Wollongong, Australia), Kevin Bierre (Rochester
Institute of Technology), David Champion (DeVry Institute), James Chegwidden (Tarrant
County College), Anup Dargar (University of North Dakota), Charles Dierbach (Towson
University), Frank Ducrest (University of Louisiana at Lafayette), Erica Eddy (University of
Wisconsin at Parkside), Deena Engel (New York University), Henry A Etlinger (Rochester
Institute of Technology), James Ten Eyck (Marist College), Olac Fuentes (University of
Texas at El Paso), Harold Grossman (Clemson University), Barbara Guillot (Louisiana State
University), Ron Hofman (Red River College, Canada), Stephen Hughes (Roanoke College),
Vladan Jovanovic (Georgia Southern University), Edwin Kay (Lehigh University), Larry
King (University of Texas at Dallas), Nana Kofi (Langara College, Canada), George
Koutsogiannakis (Illinois Institute of Technology), Roger Kraft (Purdue University at
Calumet), Hong Lin (DeVry Institute), Dan Lipsa (Armstrong Atlantic State University),
James Madison (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute), Frank Malinowski (Darton College), Tim
Margush (University of Akron), Debbie Masada (Sun Microsystems), Blayne Mayfield
(Oklahoma State University), John McGrath (J.P. McGrath Consulting), Shyamal Mitra
(University of Texas at Austin), Michel Mitri (James Madison University), Kenrick Mock
(University of Alaska Anchorage), Jun Ni (University of Iowa), Benjamin Nystuen
(University of Colorado at Colorado Springs), Maureen Opkins (CA State University, Long
Beach), Gavin Osborne (University of Saskatchewan), Kevin Parker (Idaho State
University), Dale Parson (Kutztown University), Mark Pendergast (Florida Gulf Coast
xiv Preface
University), Richard Povinelli (Marquette University), Roger Priebe (University of Texas at
Austin), Mary Ann Pumphrey (De Anza Junior College), Pat Roth (Southern Polytechnic
State University), Ronald F. Taylor (Wright State University), Carolyn Schauble (Colorado
State University), David Scuse (University of Manitoba), Ashraf Shirani (San Jose State
University), Daniel Spiegel (Kutztown University), Amr Sabry (Indiana University), Lixin
Tao (Pace University), Russ Tront (Simon Fraser University), Deborah Trytten (University
of Oklahoma), Kent Vidrine (George Washington University), and Bahram Zartoshty
(California State University at Northridge).
It is a great pleasure, honor, and privilege to work with Pearson. I would like to thank Tracy
Dunkelberger and her colleagues Marcia Horton, Margaret Waples, Erin Davis, Michael Hirsh,
Matt Goldstein, Jake Warde, Melinda Haggerty, Allison Michael, Scott Disanno, Irwin Zucker,
and their colleagues for organizing, producing, and promoting this project, and Robert Lentz
for copy editing.
As always, I am indebted to my wife, Samantha, for her love, support, and encouragement.
Y. Daniel Liang
y.daniel.liang@gmail.com
www.cs.armstrong.edu/liang
www.pearsonhighered.com/liang
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believer. But so long as belief in the devil, providence and miracles is
upheld in religious instruction, it will be impossible for the sunshine
of the civilised view, which is the scientific as opposed to the
superstitious view, to penetrate the darkness where the bacilli of
cruelty and insanity are nurtured.
The ideas children form of heaven are generally fine examples of
childish realism. A child thought his brother could not be in heaven,
because he would have to climb a ladder, and so would be
disobedient, for he had been forbidden to climb one. A girl asked,
when she heard that her grandmother was in heaven, whether God
was sitting there and holding her from falling out. These are a few of
the many proofs of the child's sense of reality, that leads to mistaken
answers here, as in so many other instances. If it is said by way of
protest that the childish imagination needs myths and symbolism,
the answer is an easy one. We cannot and should not rob the child
of the play of imagination, but play should not be taken in earnest.
It is not to be wondered at that children construct for themselves
realistic ideas about spiritual things. This practice is no more to be
opposed, than any of the other expressions of the life of the child's
soul. But when these false ideas are presented as the highest truth
of life, they must disturb the sacred simplicity of the child.
I know children in whom the origin of unbelief is to be traced to the
words of Jesus, that everything asked for by the believing heart will
be received. A small child, locked up in a dark room, prayed that
God might show people how badly he was being treated, by causing
a lamp of precious stones to be lit in the dark. Another asked to
have a sick mother saved; another prayed by the side of a dead
companion that she might rise again. For all these three, the
experience of having their most believing, most fervent prayer
unanswered, was the great turning point in their spiritual life. I can
authenticate from my own experience and the experiences of others
the ethical revolt which the cases of injustice in the Old Testament—
for example God's preference of Jacob over Esau—occasion in a
healthy child. The explanations offered in this case and in others like
it fill the child with silent contempt. When the child ends in finding
that adults themselves do not believe the religion they teach, the
childish instinct for belief and for reverence, that capacity which is
the real ground for all religious feeling, is injured for life.
I will say nothing of the heroes and heroines of the pious literature
written for children, with their stories of conversion and holiness.
Parents are able to protect their children from them. I speak here
only of that way of looking at the world, which is forced on children
with or against the will of their parents. This degrades their
conceptions of God, of Jesus, of nature. These conceptions, the child
if left to himself can develop simply or powerfully. It is this way of
looking at the world that causes unnecessary suffering and
dangerous prejudices. The inclination of the child to deep religious
feeling, sound faith, and ardent zeal for holiness will be
strengthened by an ability to draw the standards of life as freely
from the Bible as from the world's literature. The same result will be
produced by books on other religions, like Buddhism, from the great
religious personalities who illustrate the struggle for an ideal, and
from such children's books as show like efforts in a healthy form. No
child has the slightest need of the catechism or theology for his
religion or for his training; no other church history is needed than
that connected with the general history of the world. In this last
study the chief stress should be laid in teaching on the errors, in
order to impress on the young the conviction, that all new truths are
called by their contemporaries "errors." In other words these
"errors" are the best negative material man has for discovering the
truth.
Working over and explaining the contradictions met with by the child
in such religious instruction, as I am outlining here, belongs to the
preparation for a true life, in which people have to put up with
innumerable contradictions. But this personal work injures neither
the piety nor the soundness of the child's soul. Such injuries come
rather from irritating pietism or vain hypocrisy, from spiritual
fanaticism, from deceits of the reason, barrenness of soul, or
perverted feeling of right, all of which are the notorious results of
Christian training and Christian instruction, given according to the
usual methods of the present day. For the present as well as for the
future, a child will be able to solve more easily these spiritual
problems if his fine feeling for right and his quick logic have not
been dulled by the dogmatic answers to those eternal problems, that
place him in as much difficulty as the thinker.
Kant exposed long ago the most serious injuries of the kind of
religious instruction which still prevails. He showed that by making
the church's teaching the basis of morality, improper motives were
assigned to action. A thing must be avoided, not because God has
forbidden it, but because it is in and for itself wrong. Man must aim
at good, not because heaven or hell awaits the good or the bad, but
because good has a higher value than evil. To this point of view of
Kant there must be added the truth, that a position is ethically
weakening, when man is presented as incapable of doing good by
his own power. So he is told in this as in all other cases, he must be
humble and trust in God's help. Confidence in our strength and the
feeling of our own responsibility have a strong moral influence. The
belief that man is sin-laden, without chance of change, has led him
to remain where he is.
If the future generation is to grow up with upright souls, the first
condition of such growth is to obliterate from the existence of
children and young people, by a mighty scratch of the pen, the
catechism, Bible history, theology and church history.
We must bow down before the infinities and mysteries of our earthly
existence and of the world beyond. We must distinguish between
and select real ethical values; we must be convinced of the solidarity
of mankind, of man's individual duty, to construct for the benefit of
the whole race a rich and strong personality. We must look to great
models. We must reverence the divine and the regular in the course
of the world, in the processes of development of man's mind. These
are the new lines of meditation, the new religious feelings of
reverence and love, that will make the children of the new century
strong, sound, and beautiful.
These changes will destroy that idea of God that combines "God help
us" with our victories, that has increased the national lust for
conquest, the passion for mastery, the instinct of gain. It will be felt
that mixing up God in the standards of human passions is
blasphemous. People will see, that patriotism, nourished on egoism
and ambition, is the most godless thing because the most inhuman
of all the life-perverting sins with which man outrages the holiness of
life.
Intellects which can now pass over the contradiction between
Christianity and war, which can even derive strength and consolation
from them, have been depraved by the ideas forced upon mankind
through thousands of years. Nothing more can be expected from
men of such brains, than that they should die in the wilderness,
without ever obtaining a sight of the promised land.
But the brains of children can be protected from the most unholy of
all mental misconceptions, from the superstition that the patriotism,
and the nationalism, which injures the rights of others, have
something in common with ideas about God.
Let children be taught that national characteristics, the use of force,
the right of independent action, is as essential for a people as for an
individual, that it is worth every sacrifice. Let them be taught that,
on their appreciation of the nature of their country, of its life in the
past and in the present, depends their own development. Let them
be taught to dream beautiful inspiring dreams of the future of their
country, of their own work, as the necessary foundation of this
future.
They should be taught at an early age to understand the deep gulf
between patriotic feeling and the egoism which is called patriotism.
This is the patriotism in whose name small countries are oppressed
by great countries, in whose name nineteenth-century Europe has
armed itself under the stimulus of revenge, in whose name the close
of the century witnessed the extension of violence in north and
south, in west and east.
Militarism and clericalism, both principles presenting authority as
opposed to individual standards of right, are ever closely combined;
but they are not what they are called. They are not patriotism and
religion. These two words involve a sense of common citizenship, of
freedom, of justice, exalted above the narrow sphere of the
individual, of the interests of class, of the interests of one's own
country. Such are the principles which unite different groups within a
land in great interests common to all, just as they unite different
peoples in great vital questions common to all. But militarism and
clericalism oppress freedom by the principles of authority, oppress
the idea of individual development, by that of discipline, oppress the
feeling of common weal by the desire for glory and war, oppress the
feeling for right by the feeling for military honour. In Germany under
the badge of Christianity and militarism, the civil rights of the citizen,
his claims for social freedom, have been seriously menaced.
Hypnotised by these principles many members of the Russian,
French, and English nations, respectable as they are individually,
have gloated over the deeds of unrighteousness committed by their
respective governments.
All this will go on; people will continue to be burdened to the ground
by ever increasing military preparations. The rights of the small
nations will be constantly encroached upon by the larger ones, even
after the present world powers, like those that have preceded them,
have broken down under the burden of their own expansion. It will
continue to be so, until mothers implant in the souls of their children
the feeling for humanity before the feeling for their country; until
they strive to expand the sympathies of their children to embrace all
living things, plants, animals, and men; until they teach them to see,
that sympathy involves not only suffering with others but rejoicing
with others, and that the individual increases his own emotional
capacity, when he learns to feel with other individuals and with other
peoples. It will go on, as it is now, until mothers implant in the souls
of their children the certainty, that the patriotism which, in the name
of national interests, treads under foot the rights of other people, is
to be condemned. The moment children undertake to act as adults,
we shall see a harmony between ideas so taught and facts. When
the conception of nationalism in the child's mind is freed from
injustice and arrogance; when the idea of God is freed from its
debased union with a selfish patriotism, then the idea of the soldier
will be ennobled. It will no longer be identified with blind obedience
and limited class courage. The word will come to mean a man and a
fellow-citizen with the same civilised interests, the same conception
of law, the same need of freedom, the same feeling for honour, as
all other fellow-citizens. The soldier will be a defender of his
fatherland, whose character will have no other warlike traits, than
those called forth for the protection of sacred human and civil rights.
Self-defense, personal or national, will be imprinted on the child as
the first of duties, not as it is represented in the commands of
Christianity. Or to speak more accurately the child has this instinctive
feeling; all that need be done is not to confuse this instinct. The
child understands quite well, that evil men, when not resisted,
become lords over the property of others. He knows that the low
and the unrighteous get the victory, and that right-thinking and
high-minded people are sacrificed by unrighteous and low-thinking
people. The impulse to resistance is the first germ of the social
feeling for righteousness, and by this feeling will the unreflecting
judgment of the child be led also in the study of history. The child
never doubts that William Tell was right, even when, in his
instruction in religion, he has been definitely taught obedience to the
powers that be, that come from God. Every straight childish soul
applauds Andreas Hofer, despite his uncompromising conflict with
lawful authority. With his natural directness the child cuts off all
sophisms; at least all children do who are not irrevocably stupefied
by Christian principles.
To conclude what I have said against religious instruction, I will add
a statement of a ten-year-old child, made after three years
struggling with the catechism and biblical history: "I do not believe
any of this, but I hope, when men are some day wise enough, each
person may have his own belief, just as each one has his own face."
This small philosopher in these words hit unconsciously upon the
most serious spiritual injury done by religious instruction. It forces
on man's mind a special view of the world, like a conventional mask
on a man's face. But freedom and the rights of the soul's life can
only be secured by its own reflections. The soul itself must work out
that assurance of belief in which man can live and die. For
generations the great spiritual dangers of mankind have been
caused by looking backwards to find the ideal and the truth, by
regarding both as once for all given, as absolutely limited.
As soon as a child becomes conscious of himself he should feel that
he is a discoverer with infinities before him. The king's son, in the
realm of life, will no longer do menial service as a prodigal son in a
foreign land. With the whole power of his will, he can repeat those
old words, "I will arise and go to my father."
When Jaquino di Fiori in the Middle Ages preached of the Kingdom
of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, till his hair became as
silvery grey as the leaves of the olive tree, he compared these three
realms with the nettle, the rose, and the lily, the light of the stars,
the sunlight, and the sun.
In all the ends of the world this preaching is being heard now. But
that dream of a Third Kingdom, pure as the lily, warm as the sun,
can only be realised in the temper of the child who looks for life and
happiness, who brushes away joyously and frankly the clouds of
man's fall and man's humiliation.
Without becoming as little children, men cannot enter into the Third
Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Holy Ghost, the Kingdom of the
human spirit.
 CHAPTER VIII
CHILD LABOUR AND THE CRIMES OF
CHILDREN

Leaving aside questions of heredity and kindred topics, and

considering only the conditions under which the child is born,
developed, and reared, it is terrible to contemplate the misfortunes
which happen to children through lack of insight on the part of their
mothers. Doctors are never tired of telling what malformations tight-
lacing causes. How many children in the first year of their life
become blind through neglect. We only mention here some of the
troubles which crude ignorance or lack of conscience on the part of
the mothers inflict on themselves or on their children. There must be
noticed too the uncertainty and the want of system in the care of
children that come from such ignorance. A thorough improvement in
all these things is not to be expected until women have secured
universal suffrage, and until they, at the same age in which men
serve their years of military service, are legally obliged to pass
through a period of training lasting just as long, devoting themselves
to the care of children, hygiene, and sick nursing. No other
exceptions must be made, except those which exempt a man from
military service. Such duties done for one's country would come for
many women just at the time in which their interest in the subject is
awakened by marrying or the thought of marrying. This training
would give a profounder meaning to their thoughts on this subject.
But even women who never become mothers themselves would in
this way learn certain general principles of psychology, hygiene, and
care of the sick, that they might make use of afterwards in every
station of life. Further, I look for increasing limitations of the right of
parents over children. Such limitations I mean as those which have
forbidden the exposure of children, have imposed penalties for child
murder, for cruelty towards children, and the laws which have
enforced obligatory attendance at school. In England there are
organisations which investigate the treatment of children at home
and which prevent cruelties against them. Mothers who forget their
duties can be reported and punished with imprisonment; neglectful
fathers can be made to support their children, etc.; and where
parents show themselves hopelessly incompetent children can be
taken from them by law. In the different states of Germany there are
also laws which allow children to be taken from parents who,
through misuse of that relationship, injure the child's spiritual or
bodily welfare. Children receive this so-called compulsory training in
cases, too, where it is necessary to preserve them from moral
destruction. The compulsory training may be carried out either in a
suitable family or in institutions; it continues up to the eighteenth
year. A notable provision is that which places the supervision over
such children, in the hands of women.
An increased extension of the right of society in this direction is one
of its most important provisions for self-protection, and is just as
legitimate a limitation of individual freedom, as the laws to prevent
the extension of contagious diseases. Unfortunately such regulations
are often made ineffective by red tape. The parents or guardians of
the neglected child must be admonished; the unruly child must be
warned, and if this is not sufficient, the law provides that it must be
disciplined. All of these provisos are absolutely senseless in such
cases. By such warnings bad parents are not instructed in the art of
training their children, nor is an incorrigible child to be led by
admonitions to change its character, if he is left in the surroundings
which have caused his degeneration. By corporal punishment
administered in the presence of witnesses, a child already
accustomed to cuffs and blows is made more hardened and
shameless. A person with only a superficial knowledge of the
subject, enough to understand the causes which produce such
parents and such children, soon realises that he is concerned in each
detail with the infinite horizon of the social question. It is clear for
example that low wages, combined with the work of women and
children, are the main factors in poor dwellings, insufficient food,
and bad clothing. The fact that the wife works out of the house
causes the neglect of the children and the home. The lodging-house
system is the result of the lack of dwellings; want of comfort at
home causes the husband to frequent saloons and public houses. All
these factors, taken together, cause immorality and intemperance;
these last again produce those physical and mental diseases to
which children are often heirs at their birth.
Leaving out of discussion the notion that by God's help the
battlefields are covered with torn, maimed beings, with whose
destroyed brains innumerable thoughts and feelings are extinguished
which could have enriched humanity, I know no more abnormal idea
than the custom of people speaking of a guardian angel when a
chance has kept two children from an accident. Where is this
guardian angel in the innumerable other cases of misfortune: when
children remain alone because their mother must go to work and
they fall out of the window or into the fire? When they lose their
eyesight in dark cellars? When they are pressed to death because in
miserable lodgings they have to share a bed with their parents?
When the parents are drunk and the children lose their lives? Where
is this guardian angel when parents murder their children, from
religious fanaticism or disgust of life: when the children themselves,
tired of life or through fear of parental cruelty, take their own lives?
Where are these protective angels on the occasions when they are
most wanted?—in the narrow streets of great cities, in the great
industrial centres where lack of sunlight, of pure air, and of all the
other primary conditions for the development of soul and body,
undermines the bodily strength and efficiency of children before
their birth?
To see the hand of Providence in an accidental case of preservation,
while the same Providence is released from all share in natural
occurrences, from all part in the terrible phenomena of society, that
fill every second of the earth's existence with terror, is a relic of
superstition to be overcome if man is to be filled with a sense of
obligation to conditions he must master and mould. Modern man is
ever becoming more and more his own Providence; he has already
protected himself against fire by fire engines and fire insurance;
against the sea by life-saving stations; against smallpox and cholera,
diphtheria and tuberculosis, he has found other means of defence.
The blind belief that death is dependent on God's will man is losing
by the witness of statistics which declare that duration of life
increases with improved sanitary condition; which show that when
disease or summer heat mows down the children of the poor in dark
tenements the rich man can preserve his own children in his healthy,
light dwelling.
Every man who has his heart in the right spot does not wait for an
angel, but rushes to save a child from danger. But the superstitious
belief of the majority of people in God's Providence perhaps will
cause the same man to regard with complete apathy conditions by
which millions and millions of children are yearly sacrificed. Doctors
know that the destruction caused by bacteria is insignificant, as
compared with pauperism as a cause of disease. Mothers who have
over-exerted themselves, drunken fathers, bad dwellings, like those
where the poor dry out newly built houses for the rich, induced by
the low rate of rents, insufficient nourishment, inherited diseases,
especially syphilis, too early work,—all this shows its result in the
emaciated, shrivelled, ulcerated bodies of children who occasionally
are cured of their momentary disease in hospitals, but cannot be
freed from the results of the conditions of life under which they were
born and brought up. The efforts of doctors will be in vain while
they, like the other factors in society, do not devote their whole
energy to avoiding diseases, instead of healing them. What they can
now do in the way of prevention is but a palliative in comparison
with the incurable evil which flourishes in abundance. The situation
will remain as it is so long as hygiene does not receive the same
attention in society as the soul. This solicitude may take the form of
religious edification, or intellectual enlightenment, but it remains
nothing but a cut flower, stuck in a dust heap.
It is possible, with sufficient certainty, to show from criminal
statistics that degenerate children are the creation of society itself.
By allowing them to be forced into "the path of virtue," by
punishment, society behaves like a tyrant, who has put out a man's
eyes and then beats him because he cannot by himself find his road.
The categorical imperative for the social consciousness at the
present moment, is an effective legislation for the protection of
children and women.
Wherever industry is developed, the woman is taken away from the
home, the child from play and school. In the period of guilds,
women and children worked in the house, and in the workshop of
the husband. But since the factory system has constantly restricted
the household work of woman, industrial occupations on the scale of
modern capitalism can satisfy its needs for cheaper work by
woman's work. This like children's work has forced down in many
places the pay of adult workmen. The pay with which a married man
can care for his family by his work is now divided among several
members of the family. As long as special work required great
personal bodily strength or developed manual dexterity, it fell as a
rule to the men, not to women or children. But the natural
protection of women and children disappeared with the introduction
of machinery. In many cases working a machine required neither
strength nor dexterity. In other cases, like cotton spinning or mining,
delicate fingers were more valued because they were more
adaptable, tender bodies more desirable because they were smaller.
In England the work of women and children first reached its highest
point. The poorhouses sent crowds of children to the wool weaving
industry in Lancashire, children who worked in shifts at the same
machine and slept in the same dirty beds. The population in the
industrial districts pined away, as the result; diseases unknown
before came into existence; ignorance and roughness increased.
Women and children from four to five years old worked fourteen to
eighteen hours. The report of the investigations made on this
subject caused Elizabeth Barrett to write her poem, "The Cry of the
Children" that made the employers of children so indignant, but
which helped to produce the Ten Hour bill. This bill laid down that
women, children, and young persons should not work more than ten
hours a day in textile factories. This law was succeeded by others of
the same type. Similar conditions in other lands have produced
similar legislation. In Saxony, Belgium, Alsace, and the Rhine
Provinces the results of the system seemed to be just as frightful as
in England. On the Rhine, as early as the year 1838, a Prussian army
officer noticed that the number of those able to bear arms had
diminished as a result of the degenerating influence of woman and
child labour. But notwithstanding the introduction of this legislation
generally, the labour of women and children continues. It takes the
most destructive forms in those occupations which lie outside of the
sphere of legislation. There are places in which child labour is as
shocking as it was in England in 1848. In Russia, in the Bastmat
weaving industry, children of three or four years have been found at
work; and masses of children under ten working as much as
eighteen hours a day. In Germany the toy industry can show as cruel
figures in connection with children's work, all the more cruel because
in order to provide enjoyment for happy children the living energy of
others is forced out of existence. Industrial work at home is done by
children four to five years old, while the age limit for child labour in
factories, both in Germany and in Switzerland, is fourteen years. The
government of Denmark has proposed the same limit of age. In Italy
most of the crippled young children were brought up in the sulphur
districts of Sicily, crowded together in low galleries, burdened with
heavy sacks at an age at which their tender limbs under such
conditions must inevitably and incurably be contorted. As early as
twelve and thirteen years old many of them are incapable of work.
In the magnesium mines of Spain, quantities of children six to eight
years old are kept at work; through the poisonous odours they fall
victims to severe diseases. Other children carrying heavy pitchers on
their head are employed to water dry places. The child is a cheaper
means of transportation than the ass.
Despite protective legislation the average of height and weight in the
Lancashire children is and continues to be lower than anywhere else.
Of the two thousand children investigated in this district only one
hundred and fifty-one were really sound and strong; one hundred
and ninety-eight were seriously crippled; the rest more or less under
the standard of good health. All work in the cotton industry done
from six o'clock in the morning till five in the evening changes, so
this doctor says, the hopeful ten-year-old child into the thin pallid
thirteen-year-old boy. This degeneration of the population in
industrial districts is becoming a serious danger for England's future.
After people are convinced that all civilised nations are exposed to
this same danger, industrial and street work of children will be
everywhere forbidden. This will be a victory for the principle of child
protection, which, in this as in other like spheres, was opposed at
first on both economic and industrial grounds. Among these was the
uncontested right of fathers to decide on the work of their children.
It is not alone the question of child labour that reveals the low
standpoint taken by the civil authorities of Europe, but it is proved
also by the introduction of corporal punishment. Corporal
punishment is as humiliating for him who gives it as for him who
receives it; it is ineffective besides. Neither shame nor physical pain
have any other effect than a hardening one, when the blow is
delivered in cold blood long after the act occasioning it has been
done. Most of the victims are so accustomed to blows already that
the physical effect is little or nothing, but they awaken feelings of
detestation against a society which so avenges its own faults. If the
soul of the child is sensitive, corporal punishment can produce deep
spiritual torment, as was the case with Lars Kruse, the hero of
Skagen, who some years ago met his death by drowning. Everybody
knows his story from the fine account of him by the Danish poet,
Drachmann. Lars, in his childhood, had taken a plank, a piece of
driftwood, and sold it. For this he was condemned to be punished.
Till late in life, what he had suffered was ever present with him. He
was not ashamed of his action but of his punishment—a punishment
which embittered the whole life of a really great character.
The blows administered by society are inflicted on children whose
poverty and neglected education are in most cases responsible for
their faults. The victims, often emaciated by hunger, and trembling
with shame or terror, can experience no spiritual emotion fit to be
the basis of moral shame.
If the statistics of the life-history of those who are so disciplined
were revealed, we should find that the majority come from, and
return to, a home where the mother, as a result of working out of
the home, is hindered from caring for her children. They have
suffered from the custom of sleeping together, the result of
overcrowded dwellings, with its demoralising influence. It may be
the child has commenced to make his living on the street as
messenger, cigar picker, or newspaper boy, or has been engaged in
such like occupations, and so in his immediate neighbourhood has
seen the luxurious living of the upper classes, which he strives to
imitate. Hardly a week passes that the street youngster does not
read about the embezzlements, fraudulent acts in the capitalistic
classes, frequently committed by grey-headed men, whose childish
impressions go back to the good old time, on whom the lax
education of the present could not have any influence. No day
passes in which he does not see how the representatives of the
upper classes, old and young alike, satisfy their desires for pleasure.
But from the child of the tenement and the street, people expect
Spartan virtue or try to thrash it into him. It is hard to say which is
greater here, stupidity or savagery.
While the upper classes show that they are crude, immoderate, lazy,
devoted to enjoying themselves; while the majority are aiming at
getting and spending money; while so many are able to eat without
working, and so few can find work who look for it; while careless
luxury lives side by side with careless necessity, the upper class has
not the shadow of right to expect an improved lower class. The
society of the present day creates and maintains a social system
whose effects are notorious in the economic crimes of the upper and
lower class alike. It is not surprising that great cities are full of
tramps and street urchins, like a spoilt cheese full of maggots.
A destroyed home life, an idiotic school system, premature work in
the factory, stupefying life in the streets, these are what the great
city gives to the children of the under classes. It is more astonishing
that the better instincts of human nature generally are victorious in
the lower class, than the fact that this result is occasionally reversed.
There is another argument against child labour, to be found in its
immediate effect on industry itself.
Working men trained in the schools are everywhere notoriously most
efficient; even in Russia, where popular education is still so
defective, this experience has been noted. The working man able to
read and to write receives without exception on that account a
higher pay than the illiterate ones who can be only used for the
coarsest kind of work. The present development of German industry,
as compared with English, is to be ascribed among other things to
the superior educational training of the German people. The
intensive and intelligent work of the American working man has
apparently the same cause. But when children made sleepy by work
in the factory enter evening schools, or when children are taken too
early from school, they lose under continuous hard work the desire
and possibility of adapting themselves to a higher education; they
become organic machines which feed the inorganic ones. This must
cause the value of their work to decline. These organic machines are
passive, they do not try to improve their condition of life, as do the
higher workmen. Besides living machines cannot increase the
product of labour. Intelligent working men who watch over their own
rights and increase them are also those who learn easiest new
methods of work, discover new inventions which are of advantage to
their line of work, and so increase the value of their product. It is
only by the growth of this class of workmen, that any country to-day
can stand the pressure of foreign competition. But the chief
condition of this growth is that the bodily and mental powers of the
child shall be used for his own development in school games and
play; at the same time his capacity for work must be trained by
occupation at home and in the technical school, not by work in a
factory.
Some years ago, a poem created a furore over the whole civilised
world, from Canada to the islands of Polynesia. The author of this
poem, Edwin Markham, was inspired by Millet's simple and
wonderful picture, The Man with the Hoe. An agricultural labourer
with bowed back stands there, one hand folded on the other,
supported on the handle of the hoe. Millet in him has eternalised the
expression so often observed in old workmen, especially in those
who are worn out by day labour. The man's face is empty, says
nothing, every human aspect has disappeared; we only see in his
face the look of the patient beast of burden. For while moderate
work ennobles the animal in man, immoderate work kills humanity in
the beast.
Millet's picture was to the poet, who was once himself a slave to
bodily labor, a revelation, the eternal artistic type of the generation
of man bowed down from childhood under the yoke of labour. In one
strophe after another of that finely conceived poem he pictures this
being that does not sorrow, and never hopes, his destroyed soul for
which Plato and the Pleiades, the sunrise and the rose, all the
treasures of mind and nature, are nothing. The poet asks
sovereigns, masters, and governors how they will restore to this
thing a soul, how they will give it music and dreams. What, he asks,
will become of the people who have made this being what it is now;
when after a thousand years' silence God's terrible question is
answered,—What has become of his soul.
Many such employers of labour go to church, they hear explanations
of texts like these, "Inasmuch as ye did it unto ... even the least of
these, ... ye did it unto me. All that ye wish others should do to you,
that do to them." It does not occur to them to think how Jesus, the
most inconsiderate of men, at the right place, would have
characterised their demands to have small children employed in
glass works at ten years of age. It never occurs to them to ask
whether they would like to see their own children in these factories
or others like them.
This complete dualism between life and teaching in our present-day
society will continue to exist until people realise that the opinions
about life which are expressed by the lips, but are denied by deeds,
should no longer be proclaimed as an absolute explanation of life
and rule of life. The permanent element in Christianity can only be
realised through the conviction that mankind is master of Christianity
just as it is over all its other creations. The ardent idea of the
Galilean carpenter, fraternity among men, will give man no rest until
man has wiped out the last trace of injustice in his social relations.
But the thought will not be realised by those ideals regarded by
Jesus as absolute. This is the point of view which has crippled man's
conscience and it applies equally to the realisation of this and all
other ideals. An ideal impossible to carry out under the ordinary
assumptions of human life, yet to which men have given the
authority of a divine revelation, and which they conceive of as
absolute, this is the main cause for the demoralisation which has
gone on for nineteen hundred years. The history of humanity has
really revealed to men how this absolute ideal of theirs has been
betrayed. The cause of this demoralisation must cease before
existence can be remodelled seriously by those who are convinced
that ideals can really be binding.
People will then not do as they do now, misuse the name of the
Father, whom Jesus has taught men to proclaim with their lips, will
not murder one another en masse on the battlefield, to solve
political and economic questions of supremacy. A society which calls
itself Christian will no longer tolerate capital punishment,
prostitution, stock exchange gambling, and child slavery. Men will
not then as they do now, learn on their mother's breast to love their
neighbours as themselves, and then tread in the footsteps of their
fathers, trampling one another down in the struggle for bread.
Our reverence for God will then be found in our capacity to
humanise existence by humanising the human race.
The youth of our day have not always successfully passed out of the
Christian circles of ideals into another circle. The successful method
would be to face immediately new purposes and aims that are really
believed, and for which men wish to live. But many of our young
generation know of no new purposes and aims in which they can
believe. Hence comes that spiritual apathy which has mastered a
great part of the young generation. Without undervaluing the
influences of environment, I still believe that young people who have
lost their ideals without getting new ones in their place are to be
pitied. The young who are not making ideals out of their own souls
will have no other time than this to find ideals. A generation of
young men of this type laughed at Socrates. They would have nailed
Jesus of Nazareth to the Cross, with a shrug of the shoulders; they
would have become, undoubtedly, in 1789, emigrés with the
Bourbons.
When the youth of any period remains without ideals, we pass
through a fin de siècle period no matter what the exact date may be.
But when the young generation is inspired with the feeling of having
great acts to do, a new century begins. It is always the fortunate
right of young people to stimulate individualism before everything
else. This is done every time a young person full of sound egoism
develops his own personality completely and powerfully, throws
himself keenly into the struggle for his own fortune. Any one who
takes his individual development seriously will find that it is hard to
become an independent, noble, and exalted personality by treading
underfoot other individuals. He will moreover see that it makes more
demands on his personal powers to try to create new values by new
means, to devote his youthful energy to new tasks, than to look
back to ideas that are already exhausted. There is another truth the
young man will soon find to be valid. If an individual throws himself
into the struggle of life without consideration for any one else, he is
all the more likely to get hurt in the struggle. The more developed,
too, an individual is, the more assailable points there are about him
to be wounded. Great pain, as well as great happiness, is for great
men a part of the fulness of life. Failures of a personality are often
better proofs that it is above the average than its victories. But
failures, even if they frequently leave our innermost personality
shattered, can be borne, when we have learnt that there is a
bandage to heal our own wounds, the bandage, I mean, that we lay
on the wounds of others.
No real man needs to wait until life has taught him, to sympathise
with others. The inspiring age of youth may experience this, as well
as the strong individual feeling of power. In this sense, many remain
ever young, always able to pass through inspired moments, such
moments when a great action, a great truth, a great and beautiful
thing, or great good fortune, absorbs our whole existence; moments
when our eyes fill with tears, when our arms stretch out to embrace
the world and the thoughts which it contains. Such moments include
the most intensive emotion of our own personality; at the same time
they bring the fullest absorption in the common feeling of existence
as a whole. A great life means giving continuity of action to such
inspired moments.
There are young people who can look back on no such moments,
who arrogantly look down on the problems of their times from the
height of their "superman" theories or from their superior learning;
who measure them by the iron law of historical development. At all
times there have been such people. There is no question in which it
is more fatal for young people to isolate themselves, than that which
deals with social conflicts. This age requires the young above all
others to test this question from all points of view, to investigate all
other ideas in connection with it. Every reform plan must be
investigated in connection with its influence on the problems of
individualism and socialism. From youth we have a right to expect
something for the future. This hope implies that youth, in
approaching it, in thinking and acting for the many whose lot it is
the immediate task of the future to improve, adopt as their own the
words of Walt Whitman, "I do not ask whether my wounded brother
suffers; I will myself be this wounded brother."
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