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 Contents

Preface xv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and Programming 1

1.1 Why Program? 1
1.2 Computer Systems: Hardware and Software 2
1.3 Programs and Programming Languages 8
1.4 What Is a Program Made of? 14
1.5 Input, Processing, and Output 17
1.6 The Programming Process 18
1.7 Procedural and Object-Oriented Programming 22

Chapter 2 Introduction to C++ 27

2.1 The Parts of a C++ Program 27
2.2 The cout Object 31
2.3 The #include Directive 36
2.4 Variables and Literals 37
2.5 Identifiers 41
2.6 Integer Data Types 42
2.7 The char Data Type 48
2.8 The C++ string Class 52
2.9 Floating-Point Data Types 54
2.10 The bool Data Type 57
2.11 Determining the Size of a Data Type 58
2.12 Variable Assignments and Initialization 59
2.13 Scope 61
2.14 Arithmetic Operators 61
2.15 Comments 69
2.16 Named Constants 71
2.17 Programming Style 73

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 3 Expressions and Interactivity 83

3.1 The cin Object 83
3.2 Mathematical Expressions 89
3.3 When You Mix Apples and Oranges: Type Conversion 98
3.4 Overflow and Underflow 100
3.5 Type Casting 101
3.6 Multiple Assignment and Combined Assignment 104
3.7 Formatting Output 108
3.8 Working with Characters and string Objects 118
3.9 More Mathematical Library Functions 124
3.10 Focus on Debugging: Hand Tracing a Program 130
3.11 Focus on Problem Solving: A Case Study 132

Chapter 4 Making Decisions 149

4.1 Relational Operators 149
4.2 The if Statement 154
4.3 Expanding the if Statement 162
4.4 The if/else Statement 166
4.5 Nested if Statements 169
4.6 The if/else if Statement 176
4.7 Flags 181
4.8 Logical Operators 182
4.9 Checking Numeric Ranges with Logical Operators 189
4.10 Menus 190
4.11 Focus on Software Engineering: Validating User Input 193
4.12 Comparing Characters and Strings 195
4.13 The Conditional Operator 199
4.14 The switch Statement 202
4.15 More About Blocks and Variable Scope 211

Chapter 5 Loops and Files 227

5.1 The Increment and Decrement Operators 227
5.2 Introduction to Loops: The while Loop 232
5.3 Using the while Loop for Input Validation 239
5.4 Counters 241
5.5 The do-while Loop 242
5.6 The for Loop 247
5.7 Keeping a Running Total 257
5.8 Sentinels 260
5.9 Focus on Software Engineering: Deciding Which Loop to Use 261
5.10 Nested Loops 262
5.11 Using Files for Data Storage 265
5.12 Optional Topics: Breaking and Continuing a Loop 284

Chapter 6 Functions 299

6.1 Focus on Software Engineering: Modular Programming 299
6.2 Defining and Calling Functions 300
6.3 Function Prototypes 309
6.4 Sending Data into a Function 311
 Contents ix

6.5 Passing Data by Value 316

6.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Using Functions in a
Menu-Driven Program 318
6.7 The return Statement 322
6.8 Returning a Value from a Function 324
6.9 Returning a Boolean Value 332
6.10 Local and Global Variables 334
6.11 Static Local Variables 342
6.12 Default Arguments 345
6.13 Using Reference Variables as Parameters 348
6.14 Overloading Functions 354
6.15 The exit() Function 358
6.16 Stubs and Drivers 361

Chapter 7 Arrays 375

7.1 Arrays Hold Multiple Values 375
7.2 Accessing Array Elements 377
7.3 No Bounds Checking in C++ 384
7.4 Array Initialization 387
7.5 The Range-Based for Loop 392
7.6 Processing Array Contents 396
7.7 Focus on Software Engineering: Using Parallel Arrays 404
7.8 Arrays as Function Arguments 407
7.9 Two-Dimensional Arrays 418
7.10 Arrays with Three or More Dimensions 425
7.11 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 427
7.12 If You Plan to Continue in Computer Science: Introduction to the
STL vector 429

Chapter 8 Searching and Sorting Arrays 457

8.1 Focus on Software Engineering: Introduction to Search Algorithms 457
8.2 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 463
8.3 Focus on Software Engineering: Introduction to Sorting Algorithms 470
8.4 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 477
8.5 If You Plan to Continue in Computer Science: Sorting and
Searching vectors 485

Chapter 9 Pointers 495

9.1 Getting the Address of a Variable 495
9.2 Pointer Variables 497
9.3 The Relationship Between Arrays and Pointers 504
9.4 Pointer Arithmetic 508
9.5 Initializing Pointers 510
9.6 Comparing Pointers 511
9.7 Pointers as Function Parameters 513
9.8 Focus on Software Engineering: Dynamic Memory Allocation 522
9.9 Focus on Software Engineering: Returning Pointers from Functions 526
9.10 Using Smart Pointers to Avoid Memory Leaks 533
9.11 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 536
x Contents

Chapter 10 Characters, C-Strings, and More About the string Class 547
10.1 Character Testing 547
10.2 Character Case Conversion 551
10.3 C-Strings 554
10.4 Library Functions for Working with C-Strings 558
10.5 C-String/Numeric Conversion Functions 569
10.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Writing Your Own
C-String-Handling Functions 575
10.7 More About the C++ string Class 581
10.8 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: A Case Study 590

Chapter 11 Structured Data 599

11.1 Abstract Data Types 599
11.2 Focus on Software Engineering: Combining Data into Structures 601
11.3 Accessing Structure Members 604
11.4 Initializing a Structure 608
11.5 Arrays of Structures 611
11.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Nested Structures 613
11.7 Structures as Function Arguments 617
11.8 Returning a Structure from a Function 620
11.9 Pointers to Structures 623
11.10 Focus on Software Engineering: When to Use ., When to Use ->,
and When to Use * 626
11.11 Unions 628
11.12 Enumerated Data Types 632

Chapter 12 Advanced File Operations 657

12.1 File Operations 657
12.2 File Output Formatting 663
12.3 Passing File Stream Objects to Functions 665
12.4 More Detailed Error Testing 667
12.5 Member Functions for Reading and Writing Files 670
12.6 Focus on Software Engineering: Working with Multiple Files 678
12.7 Binary Files 680
12.8 Creating Records with Structures 685
12.9 Random-Access Files 689
12.10 Opening a File for Both Input and Output 697

Chapter 13 Introduction to Classes 711

13.1 Procedural and Object-Oriented Programming 711
13.2 Introduction to Classes 718
13.3 Defining an Instance of a Class 723
13.4 Why Have Private Members? 736
13.5 Focus on Software Engineering: Separating Class Specification
from Implementation 737
13.6 Inline Member Functions 743
13.7 Constructors 746
13.8 Passing Arguments to Constructors 750
 Contents xi

13.9 Destructors 758

13.10 Overloading Constructors 762
13.11 Private Member Functions 765
13.12 Arrays of Objects 767
13.13 Focus on Problem Solving and Program Design: An OOP Case Study 771
13.14 Focus on Object-Oriented Programming: Simulating Dice with Objects 778
13.15 Focus on Object-Oriented Programming: Creating an Abstract Array
Data Type 782
13.16 Focus on Object-Oriented Design: The Unified Modeling Language (UML) 785
13.17 Focus on Object-Oriented Design: Finding the Classes and Their
Responsibilities 788

Chapter 14 More About Classes 811

14.1 Instance and Static Members 811
14.2 Friends of Classes 819
14.3 Memberwise Assignment 824
14.4 Copy Constructors 825
14.5 Operator Overloading 831
14.6 Object Conversion 858
14.7 Aggregation 860
14.8 Focus on Object-Oriented Design: Class Collaborations 865
14.9 Focus on Object-Oriented Programming: Simulating the Game
of Cho-Han 869

Chapter 15 Inheritance, Polymorphism, and Virtual Functions 891

15.1 What Is Inheritance? 891
15.2 Protected Members and Class Access 900
15.3 Constructors and Destructors in Base and Derived Classes 906
15.4 Redefining Base Class Functions 918
15.5 Class Hierarchies 923
15.6 Polymorphism and Virtual Member Functions 929
15.7 Abstract Base Classes and Pure Virtual Functions 945
15.8 Multiple Inheritance 952

Appendix A: Getting Started with Alice 971

Appendix B: The ASCII Character Set 997
Appendix C: Operator Precedence and Associativity 999
Quick References 1001
Index 1003
Credit 1019

Online The following appendices are available at www.pearsonhighered.com/gaddis.

Appendix D: Introduction to Flowcharting
Appendix E: Using UML in Class Design
Appendix F: Namespaces
Appendix G: Passing Command Line Arguments
xii Contents

Appendix H: Header File and Library Function Reference

Appendix I: Binary Numbers and Bitwise Operations
Appendix J: Multi-Source File Programs
Appendix K: Stream Member Functions for Formatting
Appendix L: Answers to Checkpoints
Appendix M: Solutions to Odd-Numbered Review Questions
 LOCATION OF VIDEONOTES IN THE TEXT
VideoNote

Chapter 1 Introduction to Flowcharting, p. 20

Designing a Program with Pseudocode, p. 20
Designing the Account Balance Program, p. 25
Predicting the Result of Problem 33, p. 26
Chapter 2 Using cout, p. 31
Variabe Definitions, p. 37
Assignment Statements and Simple Math Expressions, p. 62
Solving the Restaurant Bill Problem, p. 80
Chapter 3 Reading Input with cin, p. 83
Formatting Numbers with setprecision, p. 111
Solving the Stadium Seating Problem, p. 142
Chapter 4 The if Statement, p. 154
The if/else statement, p. 166
The if/else if Statement, p. 176
Solving the Time Calculator Problem, p. 221
Chapter 5 The while Loop, p. 232
The for Loop, p. 247
Reading Data from a File, p. 274
Solving the Calories Burned Problem, p. 293
Chapter 6 Functions and Arguments, p. 311
Value-Returnlng Functions, p. 324
Solving the Markup Problem, p. 366
Chapter 7 Accessing Array Elements With a Loop, p. 380
Passing an Array to a Function, p. 407
Solving the Chips and Salsa Problem, p. 448
Chapter 8 The Binary Search, p. 460
The Selection Sort, p. 474
Solving the Charge Account Validation Modification Problem, p. 492
Chapter 9 Dynamically Allocating an Array, p. 523
Solving the Pointer Rewrite Problem, p. 545
Chapter 10 Writing a C-String-Handling Function, p. 575
More About the string Class, p. 581
Solving the Backward String Problem, p. 594
(continued on the next page)
 LOCATION OF VIDEONOTES IN THE TEXT (continued)
VideoNote

Chapter 11 Creating a Structure, p. 601

Passing a Structure to a Function, p. 617
Solving the Weather Statistics Problem, p. 652
Chapter 12 Passing File Stream Objects to Functions, p. 665
Working with Multiple Files, p. 678
Solving the File Encryption Filter Problem, p. 708
Chapter 13 Writing a Class, p. 718
Defining an Instance of a Class, p. 723
Solving the Employee Class Problem, p. 802
Chapter 14 Operator Overloading, p. 831
Class Aggregation, p. 860
Solving the NumDays Problem, p. 885
Chapter 15 Redefining a Base Class Function in a Derived Class, p. 918
Polymorphism, p. 929
Solving the Employee and Production-Worker Classes Problem, p. 963
 Preface

Welcome to the Brief Version of Starting Out with C++: From Control Structures through
Objects, 8th edition. This book is intended for use in a one or two-semester C++ ­programming
sequence, or an accelerated one-semester course. Students new to programming, as well as
those with prior course work in other languages, will find this text beneficial. The funda-
mentals of programming are covered for the novice, while the details, pitfalls, and nuances
of the C++ language are explored in-depth for both the beginner and more experienced
student. The book is written with clear, easy-to-understand language, and it covers all the
necessary topics for an introductory programming course. This text is rich in example pro-
grams that are concise, practical, and real-world oriented, ensuring that the student not only
learns how to implement the features and constructs of C++, but why and when to use them.

Changes in the Eighth Edition

C++11 is the latest standard version of the C++ language. In previous years, while the stan-
dard was being developed, it was known as C++0x. In August 2011, it was approved by
the International Standards Organization (ISO), and the name of the standard was officially
changed to C++11. Most of the popular compilers now support the C++11 standard.
The new C++11 standard was the primary motivation behind this edition. Although this
edition introduces many of the new language features, a C++11 compiler is not strictly
required to use the book. As you progress through the book, you will see C++11 icons in the
margins, next to the new features that are introduced. Programs appearing in sections that
are not marked with this icon will still compile using an older compiler.
Here is a summary of the new C++11 topics that are introduced in this edition:
l The auto key word is introduced as a way to simplify complex variable definitions.
The auto key word causes the compiler to infer a variable’s data type from its initial-
ization value.
l The long long int and unsigned long long int data types, and the LL literal
suffix are introduced.
l Chapter 5 shows how to pass a string object directly to a file stream object’s open
member function, without the need to call the c_str() member function. (A discus-
sion of the c_str()function still exists for anyone using a legacy compiler.)

xv
xvi Preface

l The range-based for loop is introduced in Chapter 7. This new looping mechanism
automatically iterates over each element of an array, vector, or other collection,
without the need of a counter variable or a subscript.
l Chapter 7 shows how a vector can be initialized with an initialization list.
l The nullptr key word is introduced as the standard way of representing a null
pointer.
l Smart pointers are introduced in Chapter 9, with an example of dynamic memory
allocation using unique_ptr.
l Chapter 10 discusses the new, overloaded to_string functions for converting numeric
values to string objects.
l The string class’s new back() and front() member functions are included in
Chapter 10’s overview of the string class.
l Strongly typed enums are discussed in Chapter 11.
l Chapter 13 shows how to use the smart pointer unique_ptr to dynamically allocate
an object.
l Chapter 15 discusses the override key word and demonstrates how it can help prevent
subtle overriding errors. The final key word is discussed as a way of preventing a virtual
member function from being overridden.
In addition to the C++11 topics, the following general improvements were made:
l Several new programming problems have been added to the text, and many of the
existing programming problems have been modified to make them unique from previ-
ous editions.
l The discussion of early, historic computers in Chapter 1 is expanded.
l The discussion of literal values in Chapter 2 is improved.
l The introduction of the char data type in Chapter 2 is reorganized to use character
literals in variable assignments before using ASCII values in variable assignments.
l The discussion of random numbers in Chapter 3 is expanded and improved, with the
addition of a new In the Spotlight section.
l A new Focus on Object-Oriented Programming section has been added to Chapter 13,
showing how to write a class that simulates dice.
l A new Focus on Object-Oriented Programming section has been added to Chapter 14,
showing an object-oriented program that simulates the game of Cho-Han. The program
uses objects for the dealer, two players, and a pair of dice.

Organization of the Text

This text teaches C++ in a step-by-step fashion. Each chapter covers a major set of topics
and builds knowledge as the student progresses through the book. Although the chapters
can be easily taught in their existing sequence, some flexibility is provided. The diagram
shown in Figure P-1 suggests possible sequences of instruction.
 Preface xvii

Figure P-1  

Chapter 1
Introduction

Chapters 2–7
Basic Language
Elements

Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 12

Searching and Pointers Advanced File
Sorting Arrays Operations*

*A few subtopics in
Chapter 12 require
Chapter 10 Chapters 9 and 11.
Characters, Strings, Chapter 11
and the string Class Structures

Chapter 13
Introduction to
Classes

Chapter 14
More About Classes

Chapter 15
Inheritance and
Polymorphism

Chapter 1 covers fundamental hardware, software, and programming concepts. You may
choose to skip this chapter if the class has already mastered those topics. Chapters 2 through
7 cover basic C++ syntax, data types, expressions, selection structures, repetition structures,
functions, and arrays. Each of these chapters builds on the previous chapter and should be
covered in the order presented.
After Chapter 7 has been covered, you may proceed to Chapter 8, or jump to either Chapter
9 or Chapter 12. (If you jump to Chapter 12 at this point, you will need to postpone sections
12.7, 12.8, and 12.10 until Chapters 9 and 11 have been covered.)
After Chapter 9 has been covered, either of Chapters 10 or 11 may be covered. After
­Chapter 11, you may cover Chapters 13 through 15 in sequence.
This text’s approach starts with a firm foundation in structured, procedural programming
before delving fully into object-oriented programming.
xviii Preface

Brief Overview of Each Chapter

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers and Programming
This chapter provides an introduction to the field of computer science and covers the fun-
damentals of programming, problem solving, and software design. The components of pro-
grams, such as key words, variables, operators, and punctuation are covered. The tools of
the trade, such as pseudocode, flow charts, and hierarchy charts are also presented.

Chapter 2: Introduction to C++

This chapter gets the student started in C++ by introducing data types, identifiers, vari-
able declarations, constants, comments, program output, simple arithmetic operations, and
C-strings. Programming style conventions are introduced and good programming style
is modeled here, as it is throughout the text. An optional section explains the difference
between ANSI standard and pre-standard C++ programs.

Chapter 3: Expressions and Interactivity

In this chapter the student learns to write programs that input and handle numeric, char-
acter, and string data. The use of arithmetic operators and the creation of mathematical
expressions are covered in greater detail, with emphasis on operator precedence. Debug-
ging is introduced, with a section on hand tracing a program. Sections are also included on
simple output formatting, on data type conversion and type casting, and on using library
functions that work with numbers.

Chapter 4: Making Decisions

Here the student learns about relational operators, relational expressions and how to con-
trol the flow of a program with the if, if/else, and if/else if statements. The condi-
tional operator and the switch statement are also covered. Crucial applications of these
constructs are covered, such as menu-driven programs and the validation of input.

Chapter 5: Loops and Files

This chapter covers repetition control structures. The while loop, do-while loop, and for
loop are taught, along with common uses for these devices. Counters, accumulators, run-
ning totals, sentinels, and other application-related topics are discussed. Sequential file I/O
is also introduced. The student learns to read and write text files, and use loops to process
the data in a file.

Chapter 6: Functions
In this chapter the student learns how and why to modularize programs, using both void
and value returning functions. Argument passing is covered, with emphasis on when argu-
ments should be passed by value versus when they need to be passed by reference. Scope of
variables is covered, and sections are provided on local versus global variables and on static
local variables. Overloaded functions are also introduced and demonstrated.
 Preface xix

Chapter 7: Arrays
In this chapter the student learns to create and work with single and multidimensional
arrays. Many examples of array processing are provided including examples illustrating
how to find the sum, average, highest, and lowest values in an array and how to sum the
rows, columns, and all elements of a two-dimensional array. Programming techniques using
parallel arrays are also demonstrated, and the student is shown how to use a data file as
an input source to populate an array. STL vectors are introduced and compared to arrays.

Chapter 8: Sorting and Searching Arrays

Here the student learns the basics of sorting arrays and searching for data stored in them.
The chapter covers the Bubble Sort, Selection Sort, Linear Search, and Binary Search algo-
rithms. There is also a section on sorting and searching STL vector objects.

Chapter 9: Pointers
This chapter explains how to use pointers. Pointers are compared to and contrasted with
reference variables. Other topics include pointer arithmetic, initialization of pointers, rela-
tional comparison of pointers, pointers and arrays, pointers and functions, dynamic mem-
ory allocation, and more.

Chapter 10: Characters, C-strings, and More About the string Class
This chapter discusses various ways to process text at a detailed level. Library functions for
testing and manipulating characters are introduced. C-strings are discussed, and the tech-
nique of storing C-strings in char arrays is covered. An extensive discussion of the string
class methods is also given.

Chapter 11: Structured Data

The student is introduced to abstract data types and taught how to create them using struc-
tures, unions, and enumerated data types. Discussions and examples include using pointers
to structures, passing structures to functions, and returning structures from functions.

Chapter 12: Advanced File Operations

This chapter covers sequential access, random access, text, and binary files. The various
modes for opening files are discussed, as well as the many methods for reading and writing
file contents. Advanced output formatting is also covered.

Chapter 13: Introduction to Classes

The student now shifts focus to the object-oriented paradigm. This chapter covers the fun-
damental concepts of classes. Member variables and functions are discussed. The student
learns about private and public access specifications, and reasons to use each. The topics of
constructors, overloaded constructors, and destructors are also presented. The chapter pres-
ents a section modeling classes with UML and how to find the classes in a particular problem.
xx Preface

Chapter 14: More About Classes

This chapter continues the study of classes. Static members, friends, memberwise assign-
ment, and copy constructors are discussed. The chapter also includes in-depth sections on
operator overloading, object conversion, and object aggregation. There is also a section on
class collaborations and the use of CRC cards.

Chapter 15: Inheritance, Polymorphism, and Virtual Functions

The study of classes continues in this chapter with the subjects of inheritance, polymor-
phism, and virtual member functions. The topics covered include base and derived class con-
structors and destructors, virtual member functions, base class pointers, static and dynamic
binding, multiple inheritance, and class hierarchies.

Appendix A: Getting Started with Alice

This appendix gives a quick introduction to Alice. Alice is free software that can be used to
teach fundamental programming concepts using 3D graphics.

Appendix B: ASCII Character Set

A list of the ASCII and Extended ASCII characters and their codes.

Appendix C: Operator Precedence and Associativity

A chart showing the C++ operators and their precedence.

The following appendices are available online at www.pearsonhighered.com/gaddis.

Appendix D: Introduction to Flowcharting

A brief introduction to flowcharting. This tutorial discusses sequence, selection, case, repeti-
tion, and module structures.

Appendix E: Using UML in Class Design

This appendix shows the student how to use the Unified Modeling Language to design
classes. Notation for showing access specification, data types, parameters, return values,
overloaded functions, composition, and inheritance are included.

Appendix F: Namespaces
This appendix explains namespaces and their purpose. Examples showing how to define a
namespace and access its members are given.

Appendix G: Passing Command Line Arguments

Teaches the student how to write a C++ program that accepts arguments from the command
line. This appendix will be useful to students working in a command line environment, such
as Unix, Linux, or the Windows command prompt.

Appendix H: Header File and Library Function Reference

This appendix provides a reference for the C++ library functions and header files discussed
in the book.
 Preface xxi

Appendix I: Binary Numbers and Bitwise Operations

A guide to the C++ bitwise operators, as well as a tutorial on the internal storage of integers.

Appendix J: Multi-Source File Programs

Provides a tutorial on creating programs that consist of multiple source files. Function
header files, class specification files, and class implementation files are discussed.

Appendix K: Stream Member Functions for Formatting

Covers stream member functions for formatting such as setf.

Appendix L: Answers to Checkpoints

Students may test their own progress by comparing their answers to the checkpoint exer-
cises against this appendix. The answers to all Checkpoints are included.

Appendix M: Solutions to Odd-Numbered Review Questions

Another tool that students can use to gauge their progress.

Features of the Text

Concept Each major section of the text starts with a concept statement.
Statements This statement summarizes the ideas of the section.
Example Programs The text has hundreds of complete example programs, each
designed to highlight the topic currently being studied. In most
cases, these are practical, real-world examples. Source code for
these programs is provided so that students can run the programs
themselves.
Program Output After each example program there is a sample of its screen
output. This immediately shows the student how the program
should function.
In the Spotlight Each of these sections provides a programming problem and a
detailed, step-by-step analysis showing the student how to
solve it.
VideoNotes A series of online videos, developed specifically for this book, is
VideoNote available for viewing at www.pearsonhighered.com/gaddis.
Icons appear throughout the text alerting the student to videos
about specific topics.
Checkpoints Checkpoints are questions placed throughout each chapter as
a self-test study aid. Answers for all Checkpoint questions can
be downloaded from the book’s Companion Web site at www.
pearsonhighered.com/gaddis. This allows students to check how
well they have learned a new topic.
Notes Notes appear at appropriate places throughout the text. They are
short explanations of interesting or often misunderstood points
relevant to the topic at hand.
xxii Preface

Warnings Warnings are notes that caution the student about certain C++
features, programming techniques, or practices that can lead to
malfunctioning programs or lost data.
Case Studies Case studies that simulate real-world applications appear in
many chapters throughout the text. These case studies are de-
signed to highlight the major topics of the chapter in which they
appear.
Review Questions Each chapter presents a thorough and diverse set of review
and Exercises questions, such as fill-in-the-blank and short answer, that check
the student’s mastery of the basic material presented in the chap-
ter. These are followed by exercises requiring problem solving
and analysis, such as the Algorithm Workbench, Predict the Out-
put, and Find the Errors sections. Answers to the odd-numbered
review questions and review exercises can be downloaded from
the book’s Companion Web site at www.pearsonhighered.com/
gaddis.
Programming Each chapter offers a pool of programming exercises designed
Challenges to solidify the student’s knowledge of the topics currently being
studied. In most cases the assignments present real-world prob-
lems to be solved. When applicable, these exercises include input
validation rules.
Group Projects There are several group programming projects throughout the
text, intended to be constructed by a team of students. One
student might build the program’s user interface, while another
student writes the mathematical code, and another designs and
implements a class the program uses. This process is similar to
the way many professional programs are written and encourages
team work within the classroom.
Software Available for download from the book’s Companion Web site at
Development www.pearsonhighered.com/gaddis. This is an ongoing project
Project: that instructors can optionally assign to teams of students. It
Serendipity systematically develops a “real-world” software package: a
Booksellers point-of-sale program for the fictitious Serendipity Booksellers
organization. The Serendipity assignment for each chapter adds
more functionality to the software, using constructs and tech-
niques covered in that chapter. When complete, the program will
act as a cash register, manage an inventory database, and produce
a variety of reports.
C++ Quick For easy access, a quick reference guide to the C++ language is
Reference Guide printed on the last two pages of Appendix C in the book.

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 Preface xxiii

Supplements
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xxiv Preface

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■ FROM CONTROL STRUCTURES ■ EARLY OBJECTS

THROUGH OBJECTS
■ BRIEF VERSION
LATE INTRODUCTION OF OBJECTS EARLIER INTRODUCTION OF OBJECTS
Classes are introduced in Chapter 13 of the stan- Classes are introduced in Chapter 7, after
dard text and Chapter 11 of the brief text, after control structures and functions, but before
control structures, functions, arrays, and pointers. arrays and pointers. Their use is then
Advanced OOP topics, such as inheritance and integrated into the remainder of the text.
polymorphism, are covered in the following two Advanced OOP topics, such as inheritance
chapters. and polymorphism, are covered in Chapters
11 and 15.

INTRODUCTION OF DATA STRUCTURES INTRODUCTION OF DATA STRUCTURES

AND RECURSION AND RECURSION
Linked lists, stacks and queues, and binary trees Linked lists, stacks and queues, and binary
are introduced in the final chapters of the standard trees are introduced in the final chapters of
text. Recursion is covered after stacks and queues, the text, after the chapter on recursion.
but before binary trees. These topics are not
covered in the brief text, though it does have
appendices dealing with linked lists and recursion.
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trust which refuses as blasphemous the application of all the tests
and proofs which are required in the certification of every other
important conviction! Religious faith rests on the spiritual nature; but
its basis is not less real for being undemonstrable, like the axioms of
mathematics. That is not real faith which dares not investigate the
grounds of its own being. It is irreverent to God, to affirm that he
does not allow us to try his ways; to demand proofs of his existence
and righteous government; to ask for the credentials of his alleged
messengers; to doubt until we are rationally convinced. If the
artificial feeling that faith is opposed to reason; religious truth to
universal truth; that belief in unseen things is less rational or less
capable of verification than the radical beliefs of the senses,—if
these prejudices were sound, or not the reverse of true, the world
would be on its inevitable way to universal infidelity and godless
materialism. But is that the tendency of things? Is it that religion is
growing less mystic? or only science more so? Have not real and
affecting mysteries been very much transferred for the time from
theology to philosophy, from the priest to the professor? I doubt
very much whether men of science are not more truly on their knees
than men of superstition, in our days. Never did such candor, such
confessions of baffled insight, such a sense of inscrutable wisdom
and power, such a feeling of awe and dependence, seem to prevail
in science as now, when so many theologians are raising the
eyebrow, and seeking to alarm the world at what they call the
atheism of the most truth-loving, earnest, and noble men. I would
sooner have the scepticism—reverent and honest and fearless—of
these solemn and awed inquisitors in the inner shrines of nature,
than the faith of self-bandaged priests, who are thinking to light the
way to heaven with candles on the mid-day altar, or to keep faith in
God alive only by processions in vestments of purple and gold.
Nor has Christianity any thing permanently to fear from the
disposition which now so largely prevails, to separate it from its
accidents, its accretions, and its misrepresentations. The days have
not long gone by when men were counted as entitled to little
respect, if they did not wear side-swords and bag-wigs. You recollect
how our Benjamin Franklin surprised, shocked, and then delighted
all Europe, by appearing at the court of France in plain citizen's
clothes? Religion, too, has had her court-dress, and her sounding
court-titles, and official robes, and circuitous ceremonies. The world
has felt horror-stricken whenever any brave and more believing spirit
has ventured to ask the meaning of one of these theological tags
and titles. But how much less wholesome is living water, if drunk out
of a leaf, or the palm of one's hand, than if presented on a salver, in
a curiously jewelled flagon, by a priest in livery? How much has
theological ingenuity of statement and systematic divinity, which it
takes the study of a life to understand, added to the power of the
simplicity of Christ as he unfolds himself in the Sermon on the
Mount? Yet, if any one has dared to be as simple as Christ himself
was in his own faith, he has been said to deny the Lord that bought
him. It has been called infidelity, to think Christ meant only just what
he said, and was understood to say, in his simple parables. You must
believe something not less incredible and abstruse than the church
Trinity; something not less contrary to natural justice and common
sense than the church vicarious atonement; something not less cruel
and vindictive than the eternal misery of all who through ignorance,
birth, or accident, or even perversity and pride, do not hear of, or do
not accept, the blood of Christ as their only hope of God's mercy and
forgiveness, or you are no Christian. Now I hold these dogmas
themselves to be unchristian in origin and influence, although held
by many excellent Christian men. I believe that they are the main
obstacles with many honest, brave, and enlightened men in our day,
to their interest in public worship; and that millions repudiate the
Church, and Christianity, which is a different thing, simply because
they suppose her to be responsible for these barnacles upon the
sacred ship. It would be just as reasonable to hold the Hudson River
responsible for the filth the sewers of the city empty into it; or to
hold the sun answerable for the changes in its beams, caused by the
colored glass in church-windows.
Christianity, the Christianity of Christ, is simple, rational, intelligible,
independent of, yet in perfect harmony,—if it be often an unknown
harmony,—with philosophy, ethics, science; true, because from God,
the God of nature as well as grace; true, because the transcript of
self-evident and self-proving principles; true, because guaranteed by
our nature; true, because of universal application, unimpeached by
time or experience. It affirms the being and authority of a righteous,
holy, and all-loving God, whom man can serve and love and worship
because he is made in his image; can know, by studying himself;
and to whom man is directly related by reason, conscience, and
affections. It affirms divine science and worship to consist in
obedience to God's laws, written on man's heart, and for ever urged
by God's Spirit. It affirms the present and persistent penalty, the
inevitable consequences, of all moral and spiritual wrong-doing and
disobedience; the present and future blessedness of well-doing and
holiness. It sets forth Jesus Christ as the Son of God and Son of
Man,—appellations that, deeply considered, really mean the same
thing,—the direct messenger, representative, and plenipotentiary of
God,—his perfect moral image. It insists upon men's putting
themselves to school to Christ, honoring, loving, and following him;
forming themselves into classes,—another name for churches,—and
by prayer, meditation, and study of his life, informing their minds
and hearts, and shaping their wills in his likeness, which is the ideal
of humanity. Its clear object is to dignify and ennoble man, by
presenting God as his father; to show him what his nature is capable
of, by exhibiting Christ in the loveliness, sanctity, and power of his
awful yet winning beauty; to make him ashamed of his own sins,
and afraid of sin, by arousing moral sensibility in his heart; safely to
fence in his path by beautiful and sacred customs,—the tender,
simple rites of baptism and communion; the duty of daily prayer, the
use of the Scriptures, and respect for the Lord's Day.
Here is a Christianity without dogmatic entanglement; plain, direct,
earnest, simple, defensible, intelligible to a child, yet deep enough to
exhaust a life's study. For it is the simplicities of religion that are the
permanent and glorious mysteries that never tire. They draw our
childhood's wonder, our manly reverence, and age's unquenched
curiosity and awe. Do we ever tire of the stars, or the horizon, or the
blue sky, or the dawn, or the sunset, or running water, or natural
gems? Do we ever tire of the thought of a holy, all-wise, all-good
Spirit of spirits, our God and our Father, or of hearing of the
reverence and trust, the obedience and the love, due to him? Do we
ever tire of Jesus Christ, considered as the sinless image, within
human limitations, of God's love and truth and mercy and purity? Do
we ever tire of hearing the wondrous story of his obedient,
disinterested, and exalted life and sacrifice? or of the call to follow
his graces and copy his perfections into our own hearts and lives?
Are we ever weary of hearing of the blessed hope of immortality,
with the comfortable expectation of throwing off the burden of our
flesh, and winging our way in spiritual freedom nearer to God and
the light of our Master's face? Who can exhaust, who can add to, the
real force and attraction and fulness of those truths and promises?
Truly received, they grow with every day's contemplation and use;
they fill the soul with an increasing awe and joy; they prove only less
common-place as they are more nearly approached, more copious as
they are more drawn upon, and more sacred as they are more
familiar.
It is the common, simple, universal truths that are the great,
inexhaustible, powerful, and never-wearying truths. But doubtless it
requires courage, personal conviction, and self-watchfulness, to
maintain personal piety or religious institutions under free and
enlightened conditions, when they are just beginning. When
sacramental mysteries are exploded, when the official sanctity of the
ministry is disowned, when the technical and dogmatic conditions of
acceptance with God are abandoned, when every man's right of
private judgment is confessed, when common sense is invited into
the inner court of faith, when every man is confessed to be a king
and a priest in that temple of God which he finds in his own body
and soul, when real, genuine goodness is owned as the equivalent of
religion, then it is evident that the support of religious institutions, of
public worship, of the church and the ordinances, must appeal to
something besides the ignorance, the fears, the superstitions, the
traditions of the Christian world. They must fall back on the practical
convictions men entertain of their intrinsic importance. They must
commend themselves to the sober, plain, and rational judgment of
men of courage, reflection, and observation. They fall into the same
category with a government based not on the divine right of kings,
or the usages of past generations, the artificial distinctions of ranks
and classes, owing fealty each to that which is socially above itself,
but resting on the consent of the governed, and deriving its
authority and its support from the sense of its usefulness and
necessity. We have not yet achieved fully, in this country, the
passage of the people over from the Old World status of subjects to
the New World status of citizens. We are in the midst of the glorious
struggle for a State, a national government, which rests securely on
the love and service of hearts that have created it, and maintain and
defend it on purely rational and intelligible grounds. It is so new, so
advanced, so sublime an undertaking, that we often falter and faint,
as if man were not good enough, nor reasonable enough, to be
entitled to such a government. We often doubt if we can bear the
dilution which the public virtue and good sense in our native
community suffers from the flood of ignorance and political
superstition coming with emigrants from other and coarser states of
society and civil organizations. We are not half alive to the glory and
grandeur of the experiment of free political institutions, and do not
press with the zeal we ought the general education, the political
training, the moral discipline, which can alone save the State, when
it has no foundation but the good-will, the respect, and the practical
valuation of the people. But is the State or the nation ever so truly
divine as when it is owned as the voice of God, calling all the people
to maintain equal justice, to recognize universal interests, to embody
Christian ethics in public law? And despite our local mortifications
and occasional misgivings, what nation is now so strong and firm,
what government so confident and so promising, as our own? What
but freedom, fidelity to rational principles and ideal justice, give it
this strength? What is it, on the other hand, but traditions that
represent the ignorance and accidents and injustice of former ages,
—what is it but authority usurped and then consecrated, social
superstitions hardened into political creeds,—that is now proving the
weakness and peril of European nationalities, and imperial or
monarchical governments? Knowledge, science, literature, progress,
truth, liberty, become sooner or later the enemies of all
governments, and all social institutions, not founded in abstract
justice and equal rights. Yet how fearful the transition! Who can
contemplate the downfall of the French empire, and then look at the
architects of the new republic, working in the crude material of a
priest-ridden or unschooled populace, without dismay? Yet the
process is inevitable. Democratic ideas are abroad: they are in the
air. They corrode all the base metal they touch; and thrones and
titles, and legalized classes, and exceptional prerogatives, are
predestined to a rapid disintegration. How blessed the nation that
has transferred its political homage from traditions to principles;
from men or families, to rights and duties; from a compromise with
ancient inequality and wrong, to an affirmation of universal justice
and right! Yet never had a people so grave and so constant and so
serious duties as we have. And there is nothing in our principles or
government that must save our country, in spite of the failure of
political virtue, intelligence, and devotion, in our private citizens. God
has buried many republics, because the people were unworthy of
them. Their failure was no disproof of the principle involved, but only
an evidence that the people fell wholly below their privileges and
ideas. America may add another to this list of failures, but can do
nothing to discredit the truth and glory and final triumph of the
democratic idea. I do not believe we shall fail; on the contrary, I
have an increasing faith in the sense and virtue and ability of the
people of this country. But the success of American political
institutions depends very much on the success of the Christian and
religious institutions that match them, and are alone adapted to
them. We cannot long guarantee religious institutions, in a country
of free schools, public lyceums, unlicensed newspapers, unimpeded
inquiry, and absolute religious equality, if they do not rest on
grounds of reason and experience and sober truth. Mere authority,
mere ecclesiasticism, mere sacred usages, mere mystery, or mere
dogmatism, will not long protect the creeds and formularies of the
church. They are undergoing a species of dry-rot, like to that which
the rafters of my own church lately suffered from the confinement
and unventilated bondage in iron boxes in which their ends had been
placed for greater security. They wanted air and light, and more
confidence in their inherent soundness; and, if they had been
permitted it, they would have lasted a hundred years. It is precisely
so with the Christian religion, boxed up in creeds. It grows musty,
worm-eaten, and finally loses its life and hold. A certain timid and
constitutionally religious portion of the community will cherish any
creed or usage which is time-honored; and the less robust and
decisive minds of the time will rally about what is established and
venerable, however out of date, incredible, or irrational. But it is
what is going on in the independent and free mind of the common
people, that should have our most serious regard. What is the faith
of the fairly educated young men and women who are now springing
up in America? Certainly, it is not, in the more gifted or the most
thoughtful part of it, in sympathy with any form of sacramental or
dogmatic Christianity. It is not Trinitarian; it is not biblical; it is not
technical. It is hardly Christian! It is bold, independent, inquisitive,
questioning every thing, and resolute in its rights of opinion. It is
alienated from church and worship to a great degree. It suspects the
importance of religious institutions, and reads and thinks and
worships in books of poetry and philosophy. A timid heart might
easily grow alarmed at the symptoms, and think that irreligion, and
decay of worship and fellowship in the Christian Church, were upon
us. But sad and discouraging as the present symptoms are to many,
I see more to hope than fear in these tendencies. They are a rebuke
to formal and technical theology,—to mere ecclesiasticism, to
outworn ways. They are bringing a violent assault upon the hard
crust of a stifling belief, of which the world must get rid before the
gospel of Christ can emerge, and be received in its primitive
simplicity. It is the only way in which faith is ever purified,—by doubt
and denial. The gospel requires a new statement. It must come out
of its ecclesiastical bulwarks. It must abandon its claim to any other
kind of judgment than all other truth claims and allows. It must
place itself by the side of science, experience, and philosophy, and
defy their tests. It must invite the most rigid investigation. It must
claim its foundations in eternal truth. It must prove its efficiency, not
with the weak, but the strong; not with the ignorant, but the
learned; not with the bound, but the free. And then it will recover its
lost ground, and take a stronger and diviner position than it ever
had before.
This is the work that Liberal Christianity has in hand; a difficult, slow,
and often discouraging work, but one that is intensely patriotic,
intensely practical, intensely necessary. That which was the mere
fortress into which the enlightened and free-minded people of
Massachusetts fled for refuge from ecclesiastical tyranny, a half-
century ago,—Unitarianism,—is now become a recognized crusade
for religious liberty for the American people. The liberty is coming
fast enough, and surely enough; but will the worship, will the
Christian seriousness, will the fellowship of faith, will the piety that
gives aromatic beauty as well as health to the soul, come with it? If
it were not to come, liberty would be only license and secularity and
worldliness. Every firm, well-ordered, earnest and religious
congregation of the liberal faith; exhibiting stableness, order,
solemnity; doing religious work among the poor, and cultivating piety
in its own youth; making sacrifices to its own ideas, and upholding
its own worship,—is an argument of the most solid kind, an example
of contagious power, an encouragement of priceless cheer, for those
who think that Christian liberty necessarily leads to license and
decay of worship; or that Christ is less revered and loved and trusted
when he is accepted in the derived and dependent character he
claimed,—the only tenable, rational, possible character in which a
century hence he can be received by any unsuperstitious persons.
We have a sacred privilege, a glorious opportunity. We only need to
show ourselves warm, earnest, united, attached to worship, fruitful
in piety, devoted to good works, zealous for God's glory and man's
redemption, sincere, humble, yet rational and free followers of
Christ, to win an immense victory for the gospel in this inquiring and
doubting age. I have no great immediate hopes, but hopes beyond
expression in the gracious development of another generation. I
bate not a jot of heart or hope that absolute liberty in religion will
favor the growth of piety, as much as political freedom has favored
the growth of order and peace and prosperity. Oh! not a thousandth
part the power of Christian truth and righteousness has yet been
shown in the world. The love of God, the love of man, have only
begun their glorious mission. Christ yet waits for his true throne.
Humanity is just come of age, and, with some wild festivity, is
claiming its heritage. But God is with and over it; and Jesus Christ is
its inspirer and guide. He will not lose his headship. He will be more
followed when less worshipped; more truly loved when less idolized;
more triumphant when more clearly understood! Darkness, wrath,
threats, enchantments, sacraments, prostrations, humiliations of
reason, emotional transports, affectations of belief, belief for its own
sake,—none of these things are truly favorable to Christ's kingdom
or the glory of his gospel. God is light, and in him is no darkness at
all. Christ is the Sun of righteousness. When reason, conscience,
affection, rule the world; when love and justice, and mild and tender
views of life and humanity, of God and Christ, displace the cruel
terrors and superstitions that have survived the social and political
meliorations of the age, we shall begin to see that love is the
fulfilling of the law, and liberty of thought the greatest friend of
worship, the finest result of Christ's coming, and the throne from
which he commands the whole human heart and history.
A TRUE THEOLOGY THE BASIS
OF
 HUMAN PROGRESS.
By JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE.
The subject of the present lecture is "A True Theology the Basis of
Human Progress." And, in order to strike the key-note, and to
indicate the object at which I aim, I will read four or five passages
from the New Testament, which describe such a Theology in its spirit
and root.
The Apostle Paul says:[1] "I count not myself to have apprehended:
but this one thing I do, forgetting those things which are behind,
and reaching forth unto those things which are before, I press
toward the mark." So he declares himself a Progressive Christian.
[1] Phil. iii. 13.

Again he says:[2] "We know in part, and we prophesy [or teach] in

part. But when that which is perfect is come, then that which is in
part shall be done away." So he declares that all intellectual
statements, his own included, are relative and provisional. He is here
speaking, doubtless, not of rational insights, but of the insight when
elaborated by the intellect into a statement; not of intuitional
knowledge, but that which comes from reflection. In regard to all
such propositions, he would accept the modern doctrine of the
Relativity of Knowledge; thus cutting up by the roots the poisonous
weed of Bigotry.
[2] 1 Cor. xiii. 9, 10.
Again: "Brethren, be not children in understanding: howbeit, in
malice be ye children, but in understanding be men."[3] He thus
requires and authorizes a manly, intelligent Theology.
[3] 1 Cor. xiv. 20.
Again: "Who also hath made us able ministers of the New
Testament; not of the letter, but of the spirit: for the letter killeth,
but the spirit giveth life."[4] He here rejects the Theology of the
letter, including the doctrine of Literal Inspiration.
[4] 2 Cor. iii. 6.

Again: "God hath not given us the spirit of fear; but of power, and of
love, and of a sound mind."[5]
[5] 2 Tim. i. 7.
My Thesis to-night is not a truism; my argument is not unnecessary
or uncalled for. Nothing is more common than to undervalue the
importance of Theology; to regard it as having no bearing on life, no
influence on human progress, no causative power in regard to
civilization. Mr. Buckle, one of the most recent English philosophical
historians, contends that Theology is the result rather than the cause
of national character; that it is merely symptomatic of the condition
of a people. If they are in a good condition, they have a good
Theology; if in a bad condition, a bad one. He even thinks it owing
to a mistaken zeal that Christians try to propagate their religion,
because he believes that savages cannot become Christians.
Civilization, Mr. Buckle supposes, depends greatly upon soil, upon
climate, upon food, upon the trade-winds; but not much upon
religious ideas. He says that, in England, "theological interests have
long ceased to be supreme." "The time for these things has passed
by." And this is also a very common opinion among ourselves. Many
reformers have a notion that we have done with Theology, that we
can do without it. Some men of science tell us that Theology has
nothing to do with the advance of civilization, but that this comes
from discovery in the sphere of physical science. But I believe that
the one thing which retards the progress of reform is a false
philosophy concerning God and man, a false view of God's ideas
concerning this world; and that the one thing needful for Human
Progress is a deeper, higher, broader view of God and his ways. And
I hope to be able to show some grounds for this opinion.
The religious instinct in man is universal. Some individuals and some
races possess more of it, and others less; but the history of mankind
shows that religion in some form is one of the most indestructible
elements of human nature. But whether this religious instinct shall
appear as faith or as fanaticism; whether it shall be a blind
enthusiasm or an intelligent conviction; whether it shall be a
tormenting superstition or a consoling peace; whether it shall lead to
cruel persecutions or to heavenly benevolence; all this, and more,
depends on Theology. Religion is a blind instinct: the ideas of God,
man, duty, destiny, which determine its development, constitute
Theology.
The same law holds concerning Conscience and Ethics. Conscience
in the form of a moral instinct is universal in man. In every human
breast there is a conviction that something is right and something
wrong; but what that right and wrong is depends on Ethics. In every
language of man, there are words which imply ought and ought not,
duty, responsibility, merit, and guilt. But what men believe they
ought to do, or ought not to do,—that depends on the education of
their conscience; that is, on their Ethics.
Conscience, like religion, is man's strength, and his weakness.
Conscience makes cowards of us all; but it is the strong-siding
champion which makes heroes of us all. Savages are cruel, pirates
are cruel; but they cannot be as cruel as a good man, with a
misguided conscience. The most savage heart has some touch of
human kindness left in it, which nothing can quite conquer,—nothing
but conscience. That can make man as hard as Alpine rock, as cold
as Greenland ice. The torture-rooms and autos da fe of the
Inquisition surpass the cruelties of the North American Indian. The
cruelties of instinct are faint compared with the cruelties of
conscience. Now what guides conscience to good or to evil?
Theology, in the form of Ethics, is the guide of conscience. For, as
soon as man believes in a God, he believes in the authority of his
God to direct and control his actions. Whatever his God tells him to
do must be right for him to do. Therefore religion in its inward form
is either a debasing and tormenting superstition or a glad faith,
according to the Theology with which it is associated. And religion,
in its outward form, is either an impure and cruel despotism or an
elevating morality, according to the idea of God and Duty which
guide it; that is, according to its associated Theology.
Some persons, like Lucretius, seeing the evils of Superstition,
Bigotry, and Fanaticism, and perceiving that these have their root in
religion, have endeavored to uproot religion itself. But could this be
effected, which is impossible, it would be like wishing to get rid of
the atmosphere, because it is sometimes subject to tempests, and
sometimes infected with malaria. Religion is the atmosphere of the
soul, necessary to the healthful action of its life, to be purified, but
not renounced.
Every one has a Theology, who has even a vague idea of a God; and
every one has this who has an idea of something higher and better
than himself, higher and better than any of his fellow-men. The
Atheist therefore may have a God, though he does not call him so.
For God is not a word, not a sound: he is the Infinite Reality which
we see, more or less dimly, more or less truly, rising above us, and
above all our race. The nature of this ideal determines for each of us
what we believe to be right or wrong; and so it is that our Theology
rules our conscience, and that our conscience determines with more
or less supremacy the tendency and stress of our life.
No one can look at the History of the Human Race without seeing
what an immense influence religion has had in human affairs. Every
race or nation which has left its mark on Human Progress has itself
been under the commanding control of some great religion. The
ancient civilization of India was penetrated to the core by the
institutions of Brahmanism; the grand development of Egyptian
knowledge was guided by its priesthood; the culture of China has
been the meek disciple of Confucius for two thousand years.
Whenever any nation emerges out of darkness into light,—Assyria,
Persia, Greece, or Rome,—it comes guided and inspired by some
mighty religion. The testimony of History is that religion is the most
potent of all the powers which move and govern human action.
Such is the story of the past. How is it at the present time? Has
mankind outgrown the influence of religion to-day? Has the spread
of knowledge, the advance of science, the development of literature,
art, culture, weakened its power in Christendom? Never was there so
much of time, thought, effort, wealth, consecrated to the Christian
Church as there is now. Both branches of that Church, the Catholic
and Protestant, are probably stronger to-day than they ever were
before. Some few persons can live apart from religious institutions;
but mankind cannot dispense with religion, and they need it
organized into a Church or Churches.
Religion is a great power, and will remain so. But what is to
determine the character of this power? It may impede progress or
advance it; it may encourage thought or repress it; it may diffuse
knowledge or limit it; it may make men free or hold them as slaves;
it may be a generous, manly, free, and moral religion or a narrow,
bigoted, intolerant, fanatical, sectarian, persecuting superstition. It
has been both: it is both to-day. What is to decide which it shall be?
I answer, its Theology; the views it holds concerning God, man, duty,
immortality, the way and the means of salvation. Religion is an
immense power: how that power is to be directed depends on
Theology.
Proceeding then with my theme, I shall endeavor to show how false
ideas in Theology tend to check the progress of humanity, and
afterward how true ideas always carry mankind onward along an
ascending path of improvement.
But first let me say that my criticism is of ideas, not of sects,
churches, nor individuals. By a true Theology, I mean neither a
Unitarian nor a Trinitarian Theology, neither a Catholic nor a
Protestant Theology. I do not mean Calvinism nor Arminianism. I
have nothing to say concerning these distinctions, however
important they may be; and I, for one, consider them important. But
I refer to a distinction more important still, lying back of these
distinctions, lying beneath them; a difference not of opinions so
much as of ideas and spirit.
By a true Theology, I mean a manly Theology, as opposed to a
childish one; a free, as opposed to a servile one; a generous, as
opposed to a selfish one; a reasonable and intelligent Theology, as
opposed to a superstitious one.
By a true Theology, I mean one which regards God as a father, and
man as a brother; which looks upon this life as a preparation for a
higher; which believes that God gives us freedom, inspires our
reason, and is the author of whatever is generous, self-forgetting,
and noble. I find something of this Theology in all sects and
churches; from the Roman Catholic at one extreme, to the
Universalists and Unitarians, the Spiritualists and Come-outers, at
the other. And the opposite, the false Theology, dishonorable to God,
degrading to man, I find in all sects, and accompanying all creeds.
And if I shall show, as truth compels me to show, that certain parties
and persons are specially exposed to danger in one or another
direction, I wish distinctly to state my belief that sincere and earnest
men continually rise above the contagion of their position, and live
untainted in an atmosphere which may have in it some special
tendency to disease.
One false idea in Theology, which opposes human progress, is that
Pantheistic view of the Deity, which loses sight of his personality, and
conceives of him as a blind, infinite force, pervading all Nature, and
carrying on the universe, but without intelligence and without love.
I know indeed that many views have been accused of being
Pantheism which are not. I do not believe in a God outside of the
universe. I believe that he is one "in whom we live, and move, and
have our being," one "from whom, and through whom, and to whom
are all things,"—a perpetual Creator, immanent in his world. But this
view is quite consistent with a belief in his personal being, in his
intelligent, conscious, loving purpose. Without such a belief, hope
dies out of the heart; and without hope mankind loses the energy
which creates progress. Unless we have an intelligent Friend who
governs the universe, it will seem to be moving blindly on toward no
divine end; and this thought eats out the courage of the soul.
In some poetical natures, as in the case of Shelley, this Pantheism
takes the form of faith in a spirit of beauty, or love, or intellectual
power, pervading all things. In more prosaic minds it becomes a
belief in law, divorced from love. It turns the universe into a
machine, worked by forces whose mutual action unfolds and carries
on the magnificent Cosmos. Often this view comes, by way of a
reaction, against an excessive Personality of Will. When the Christian
Church speaks of the Deity as an Infinite Power outside of the world,
who creates it and carries it on according to some contrivance, of
which his own glory is the end, it is perhaps natural that men should
go to the other extreme and omit person, will, and design from their
conception of Deity. But thus they encounter other and opposite
dangers.
A gospel of mere law is no sufficient gospel. It teaches prudence,
but omits Providence. This utilitarian doctrine, which reduces every
thing to law,—which makes the Deity only a Great Order, not a
Father or Friend,—would soon put a stop to the deepest spring of
human progress. It takes faith and hope out of our life, and
substitutes observation, calculation, and prudence. But the case of
Ecclesiastes and of Faust teaches us what comes from knowledge
emptied of faith. He who increases such knowledge increases
sorrow. The unknown, wonderful Father; the divine, mysterious
Infinite; the great supernatural power and beauty above Nature, and
above all,—these alone make life tolerable. Without this brooding
sense of a Divine love, of a Heaven beyond this world, of a
Providence guiding human affairs, men would not long have the
heart to study, because all things would seem to be going nowhere.
Without such a Heavenly Friend to trust, such an immortal progress
to hope, all things would seem to revolve in a circle. Not to believe
in something more than a God of Law is to be without God in the
world, is to be without hope. And hope is the spring of all progress,
intellectual progress as well as all other. Intellect, divorced from
faith, at last kills intellect itself, by destroying its inner motive. It
ends in a doctrine of despair, which cries continually, "What is the
use?" and finds no answer. And so the soul dies the only death the
soul can die,—the death of torpor and inaction.
Another false idea in Theology, which interferes with human
progress, is that of ecclesiastical authority in matters of faith and
practice. When the Church comes between the soul and God, and
seeks to be its master rather than its servant, it takes from it that
direct responsibility to God, which is one of the strongest motives for
human effort. I know that this has always been done from a sincere
desire, at any rate in the beginning, to save men from apparent
dangers. The Church has assumed authority, in order to do good
with it. It has commanded men not to think for themselves, lest they
should err. But God has meant that we should be liable to error, in
order that we should learn to avoid it by increased strength.
Therefore Christ said, "Be not called Rabbi; be not called Masters,
and call no man father on earth." His church, and his apostles, and
he himself are here, not to be masters of the soul, but to be its
servants.
The Roman Catholic Church is a great organization, which has
gradually grown up, during a thousand years, the object of which
has been to educate men in Christian faith and Christian conduct. It
has sincerely endeavored to do this. But, unfortunately, it took a
narrow view of Christian education; supposing that it meant
instruction and guidance, restraint and tuition, but not development.
It has magnified its own authority, in order to produce docility in its
pupils. It has not allowed them freedom of inquiry nor liberty of
conscience. It has not said, like Paul, "Be not children in
understanding;" on the contrary, it has preferred to keep them
children, so as to guide them more easily. It has not said, with Paul,
"Stand fast in the liberty wherewith Christ has made you free;" for it
has come to hate the very name of liberty. What is the result? You
may read it to-day in France, where, as Mr. Coquerel tells us, that
Church has prevented the steady development of free institutions. It
has always supported the principle of authority in the State, as the
natural ally of authority in the Church. There are so few republicans
in France to-day, because the people have been educated by the
Church to blind submission. The priests are not to blame, the people
are not: it is the Roman Catholic Theology which is to blame. That
Theology teaches that the soul is saved by the reception of external
sacraments, and not by vital, independent convictions of truth.[6]
[6] The proof of this may be amply found in the famous Encyclical and Syllabus of
Pius IX., Dec. 8th, 1864. In the Syllabus he denounces as errors such propositions
as the following:—
That "every man is free to embrace and profess that religion which guided by the
light of reason, he holds to be true." § 15.
That "one may well hope, at least, for the eternal salvation of those who are in no
wise in the true Church of Christ." § 17.
That "the Church has no power to employ force." § 24.
That "men emigrating to Catholic countries should be permitted the public exercise
of their own several forms of worship." § 78.
That "the Roman Pontiff can and ought to reconcile and harmonize himself with
progress, with liberalism, and with modern civilization." § 80.
Or, if you wish another illustration of the same thing, look at New
York. Why have republican institutions in New York almost proved a
failure? Why were a few robbers able to take possession of the city,
and plunder the citizens? Because they could control the votes of the
Irish Catholics in a mass; because this vast body of voters were
unable to vote independently, or to understand the first duties of a
free citizen. And why was this? Not because the Irish are naturally
less intelligent than the New-Englanders, the English, the Germans.
No; but the Roman Catholic Church, which has had the supreme
control over the Irish conscience and intellect for a thousand years,
has chosen to leave them uneducated. Of course, the Roman
Church, if it had pleased to do so, might long ago have made the
Irish nation as enlightened as any in Europe. But its Theology taught
that education might lead them into heresy, and so take them out of
the true Church, and that ignorance in the Church was infinitely
better than any amount of intellectual and moral culture out of it.
The fatal principle of Roman Catholic Theology—"Out of the true
Church there is no salvation"—has been the ruin of the Irish nation
for hundreds of years, and has very nearly entailed ruin on our own.
Do you wonder that the priests oppose our school system? If I were
a Roman Catholic priest, I should oppose it too. Should I run the risk
of poisoning my child's body by accepting as a gift a little better food
than that I am able to buy? And shall I risk the vastly greater evil of
poisoning its soul, by allowing it to be tainted with heretical books
and teachers in free schools? The Roman Catholic priest is
consistent: it is the Theology which teaches salvation by sacraments
that is to blame. It is a theology which naturally, logically,
necessarily, stands opposed to human progress. It says, "In order to
be children in malice, you must also be children in understanding."
When the Protestant Reformation came, it brought with it a manly
Theology. It put the Bible into all men's hands, and asserted for each
the right of private judgment and liberty of conscience. Therefore
the Reformation was the cause of a great forward movement in
human affairs. It awakened the intellect of mankind. Science,
literature, invention,—all were stimulated by it. It ran well, but
something hindered. Its reverence for the Bible was its life; but,
unfortunately, it soon fell into a worship of the letter. It taught a
doctrine of verbal inspiration. It forgot the great saying of Paul, "not
of the letter, but the spirit; for the letter killeth." Very soon that
saying was fulfilled. Reverence for the letter of the Bible killed the
spirit of the Bible. That spirit is as free as air. It teaches no creed, it
demands no blind acceptance of any dogma. It declares that where
the spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty. But the letter-theology has
opposed nearly all the discoveries of science and all moral reforms
with the words of the Bible. It has set Genesis against geology, and
the book of Psalms against the Copernican system. Because the
Book of Genesis says the heavens and earth were made in six days,
the letter-theology declared that the fossil shells were made in the
rocks just as they are, or were dropped by pilgrims returning from
the Holy Land. Because the book of Psalms said that "God hath
established the earth so that it shall not be moved for ever," the
letter-theology denied its daily and yearly revolution. Because Noah
said, "Cursed be Canaan," the letter-theology defended the slavery
of the negro. Because Noah also said, "He who sheddeth man's
blood, by man shall his blood be shed," the letter-theology has
defended capital punishment as a religious duty. Because the Jews
were commanded to rest on the seventh day, the letter-theology
forbids the Boston Public Library to be open on the first. Becoming
ever more timid and more narrow, it clings to the letter of the
common English translation, and the received text. It even shrinks
from alterations which would give us the true letter of the Bible,
instead of the false one.
Some years ago the American Bible Society appointed a committee
of the most learned scholars, from all Orthodox denominations, to
correct the text and the translation of our common English Bible, so
as to make it conform to the true Hebrew and Greek text. They were
not to make a new translation, but merely to correct palpable,
undoubted errors in the old one. They did their work; printed their
corrected Bible; laid it before the Bible Society,—and that Society
refused to adopt it. They had not the slightest doubt of its superior
correctness; but they feared to make any change, lest others might
be called for, and lest the faith of the community might be disturbed
in the integrity of the Scriptures. Jesus had promised them the Holy
Spirit to lead them into all truth, to take of his truth and show it to
them; but they did not believe him. They preferred to anchor
themselves to the words chosen by King James's translators than to
be led by the Spirit into any new truth. So it is that "the letter
killeth." It stands in the way of progress. It keeps us from trusting in
that ever-present Spirit which is ready to inspire us all to-day, as it
inspired prophets and apostles of old. It is an evidence not of faith,
but of unbelief.
Thus, this false idea in Theology, that inspiration rests in the letter of
a book or a creed rather than in its spirit, is seen to be opposed to
human progress.
And then there is another Theology which is opposed to human
progress. It is the Theology of Fear. It speaks of hell rather than of
heaven; it seeks to terrify rather than to encourage; it drives men by
dread of danger rather than leads them by hope. Its ruling idea is of
stern, implacable justice; its God is a God of vengeance, who cannot
pardon unless the full penalty of sin has been borne by some victim;
whose mercy ceases at death; who can only forgive sin during our
short human life, not after we have passed into the other world. To
assuage his anger, or appease his justice, there must be devised
some scheme of salvation, or plan of redemption. He cannot forgive
of pure, free grace, and out of his boundless love.
Now those who hold such a Theology as this will apply its spirit in
human affairs. It will go into penal legislation, into the treatment of
criminals. It will make punishment the chief idea, not reformation.
Jesus taught a boundless compassion, an infinite tenderness toward
the sinful, the weak, the forlorn people of the world. He taught that
the strong are to bear the burdens of the weak, the righteous to
help the wicked, and that we are to overcome evil with good. When
this principle is applied in human affairs, the great plague spots of
society will disappear: intemperance, licentiousness, pauperism,
crime, will be cured radically. Society, purified from these poisons,
will go forward to nobler achievements than have ever yet been
dreamed of. But this principle will not be applied while the fear-
theology prevails, and is thought more of than that of love. The
progress of human society depends on the radical cure of these
social evils, not their mere restraint. And they can only be cured by
such a view of the divine holiness and the divine compassion as is
taught by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount and the Parable of the
Prodigal Son; showing the root of crime in sin, and inspiring a
profound faith in God's saving love.
It may seem to some persons that I go too far in asserting that a
true Theology is at the basis of human progress. They may ascribe
human progress to other causes,—to the advance of knowledge, to
scientific discovery, to such inventions as printing, the steam-engine,
the railroad, and the like. But I believe that spiritual ideas are at the
root of all others. That which one thinks of God, duty, and
immortality,—in short, his Theology,—quickens or deadens his
interest in every thing else. Whatever arouses conscience, faith, and
love, also awakens intellect, invention, science, and art. If there is
nothing above this world or beyond this life; if we came from
nothing and are going nowhere, what interest is there in the world?
"Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." But if the world is full
of God,—if we come from him and are going to him,—then it
becomes everywhere intensely interesting, and we wish to know all
about it. Science has followed always in the steps of religion, and
not the reverse. The Vedas went before Hindoo civilization; the
Zend-Avesta led the way to that of Persia; the oldest monuments of
Egypt attest the presence of religious ideas; the Laws of Moses
preceded the reign of Solomon; and that civilization which joined
Greeks, Romans, Goths, Vandals, Franks, and Saxons in a common
civilization, derived its cohesive power from the life of Him whose
idea was that love to man was another form of love to God. "The
very word humanity," says Max Müller, "dates from Christianity." No
such idea, and therefore no such term, was found among men
before Christ came.
But it may be said that these instances are from such obscure
epochs that it is uncertain how far it was religion which acted on
civilization. Let us, then, take one or two instances, concerning
which there is less uncertainty.
In the deserts, and among the vast plains of the Arabian Peninsula,
a race had slumbered inactive for twenty centuries. Those nomad-
Semitic tribes had wandered to and fro, engaged in perpetual
internecine warfare, fulfilling the prediction concerning Ishmael, "He
will be a wild man; his hand will be against every man, and every
man's hand against him." No history, no civilization, no progress, no
nationality, no unity, could be said to exist during that long period
among these tribes. At length a man comes with a religious idea, a
living, powerful conviction. He utters it, whether man will bear or
forbear. He proclaims the unity and spirituality of God in spite of all
opposition and persecution. At last his idea takes hold of the soul of
this people. What is the result? They flame up into a mighty power;
they are united into an irresistible force; they sweep over the world
in a few decades of years; they develop a civilization superior to any
other then extant. Suddenly there springs up in their midst a new
art, literature, and science. Christendom, emasculated by an
ecclesiastical and monastic Theology, went to Islam for freedom of
thought, and found its best culture in the Mohammedan universities
of Spain. Bagdad, Cairo, Damascus, Seville, Cordova, became
centres of light to the world. The German conquerors darkened the
regions they overran: the Mohammedans enlightened them. The
caliphs and viziers patronized learning and endowed colleges, and
some of their donations amounted to millions of dollars. Libraries
were collected. That of a single doctor was a load for four hundred
camels. That of Cairo contained a hundred thousand manuscripts,
which were lent as freely as those in the Boston Public Library. The
College Library of Cordova had four hundred thousand. In these
places grammar, logic, jurisprudence, the natural sciences, the
philosophy of Aristotle, were taught to students who flocked to them
from all parts of Christendom. Many of the professors taught from
memory: one man is reported to have been able to repeat three
thousand poems. The Saracens wrote treatises on geography,
numismatics, medicine, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics. Some,
like Avicenna, went through the whole circle of the sciences. The
Saracens invented pharmacy, surgery, chemistry. Geber, in the eighth
century, could prepare alcohol, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, corrosive
sublimate, potash, and soda. Their astronomers measured a degree
of the earth's meridian near Bagdad, and determined its
circumference as twenty-four thousand miles. They found the length
of the year, and calculated the obliquity of the ecliptic. Roger Bacon
quotes their treatises on optics. Trigonometry retains the form given
it by the Arabs, and they greatly improved Algebra. We received
from them our numerical characters. We all know the beauty and
permanence of their architecture, and much of our musical
knowledge is derived from them. They also made great progress in
scientific agriculture and horticulture, in mining and the working of
metals, in tanning and dying leather. Damascus blades, morocco,
enamelled steel, the manufacture and use of paper, the use of the
pendulum, the manufacture of cotton, public libraries, a national
police, rhyme in verse, and our arithmetic, all came to us from the
Arabs.
All this fruitful intellectual life must be traced directly back to the
theological impulse given by Mohammed to the Arab mind; for it can
be derived from no other source.
It is not quite so easy to define the precise influence on human
progress given by the doctrines of the Reformation; for, before
Luther, these were in the air. But no one can reasonably doubt that
the demand for freedom of conscience and the right of private
judgment in religion has led to liberty of thought, speech, action, in
all other directions. To the war against papal and ecclesiastical
authority in concerns of the soul we owe, how much no one can say,
of civil freedom, popular sovereignty, the emancipation of man, the
progress of the human mind. The theses of Luther were the source
of the Declaration of Independence. And modern science, with the
great names of Bacon and Newton, Descartes and Leibnitz, Goethe
and Humboldt, is the legitimate child of Protestant Theology.
It is true that printing and maritime discoveries preceded Luther. But
these inventions came from the same ideas which took form in the
Lutheran Reformation. The discovery of printing was a result, no less
than a cause. It came because it was wanted; because men were
wishing to communicate their thoughts more freely and widely than
could be done by writing. If it had been discovered five hundred
years before, it would have fallen dead, a sterile invention, leading
to nothing. And so the steam-engine and the railroad did not come
before, because they were not wanted: as soon as they were
wanted they came. That which lies at the root of all these inventions
is the wish of man to communicate easily and rapidly and widely
with his brother-man; in other words, the sense of human
brotherhood. Material civilization, in all its parts and in all times,
grows out of a spiritual root; and only faith leads to sight, only the
things unseen and eternal create those which are seen and
temporal.
The two Theologies at the present time which stand opposed to
each other here are not Calvinism and Armenianism, not
Trinitarianism and Unitarianism, not Naturalism and Supernaturalism.
But they are the Theology of discouragement and fear on one side,
that of courage and hope on the other. The one thinks men must be
driven to God by terror: the other seeks to attract them by love. The
one has no faith in man, believes him wholly evil, believes sin to be
the essential part of him. The other believes reason a divine light in
the soul, and encourages it to act freely; trusts in his conscience
enlightened by truth, and appeals to it confidently; relies on his
heart, and seeks to inspire it with generous affections and
disinterested love. That this Theology of faith is to triumph over that
of fear who can doubt? All the best thought, the deepest religion,
the noblest aspiration of the age, flows in this direction. Whether our
handful of Unitarian Churches is ever to become a great multitude or
not, I do not know; but I am sure that the spirit which inspired the
soul of Channing is to lead the future age, and make the churches
which are to be. It is not now a question of Unity or Trinity, but
something far deeper and much more important. While endeavoring
to settle the logical terms of Christ's divinity and humanity, we have
been led up higher to the sight of the Divine Father and the Human
Brotherhood. Like Saul, the son of Kish, we went out to seek our
father's asses, and have found a kingdom.
We have recently been told about a Boston Theology. If there is any
thing which deserves to be called a Boston Theology it is this
doctrine of courage and hope. For it is shared by all the leading
minds of all Protestant denominations in this city. Whatever eminent
man comes here, no matter what he was when he came, finds
himself, ere long, moving in this direction. The shackles of tradition
and formality fall from his limbs, his eyes open to a new light; and
he also becomes the happy herald of a new and better day.
But a better word still, if one is wanted by which to localize these
ideas, would be "The New England Theology." For in every part of
New England, from the beginning; in every one of the multiform
sects, whose little spires and baby-house churches have spotted our
barren and rocky hills, there have never failed men of this true
Apostolic succession; men believing in truth, and brave to utter it;
believing that God loves truth better than falsehood; that he desires
no one to tell a lie for his glory, or to speak words of wind in his
behalf. With all our narrowness, our bigotry, our controversial
bitterness, our persecuting zeal,—of which, God knows, we have had
enough in New England,—the heart of New England has been
always free, manly, and rational. Yes: all the way from Moses Stuart
to William Ellery Channing, all along the road from the lecture-rooms
on the hills of Andover to the tribune of Theodore Parker standing
silent in the Music Hall, we have had this same brave element of a
manly Theology. This has been the handful of salt which has saved
New England. Hence it is that from the days of the early Puritans,
men and women, of Harry Vane, Mrs. Hutchinson, and Roger
Williams, who stood up for the rights of the human soul against
priestly tyranny, down through the ministers of the Revolution who
went with their people to the camp of Washington at Cambridge;
down to the days of the Beechers,—there has never failed a man in
the New England pulpit to stand up for justice, freedom, and
humanity. From our bare hill-tops New England men and women
have looked up to the sky and seen it not always nor wholly black
with superstitious clouds, but its infinite depths of blue
interpenetrated evermore with the warm living light of a God of
Love. And therefore has New England been the fountain of Progress,
the fruitful parent of Reforms, "the lovely mother of yet more lovely
children."
I have quoted several striking passages from the Apostle Paul. One
expresses his longing for greater excellence, and declares that he
forgets every thing already attained, and is reaching out for better
things, for more truth and more love. Another passage calls on his
disciples to think for themselves, and be rational Christians, not
children in understanding. A third asserts that he is the minister of
the spirit of the gospel, not its letter; a fourth that his religion is not
one of fear, but of power and love and a sound mind; a fifth says,
Stand fast in freedom, and be liberal Christians; and in other places
he exhorts his brethren not to be narrow, nor bigoted; but to look at
every thing beautiful, lovely, true, and good, no matter where they
find it. But a little while before he said these things Paul himself was
one of the most narrow, and intolerant of men, opposed to progress
wholly. What made this great change in his soul? It was that he had
found a true Theology. He learned from Christ to trust simply in the
divine love for pardon and salvation. He learned that God was the
God of Heathen and Pagans as well as of Jews. He learned that no
ritual, ceremony, sacraments nor forms, but only the sight of God as
a Father and Friend, can really save the soul from its diseases, and
fill it with immortal life. A true Theology was the secret of Paul's
immense progress, and of his wonderful power to awaken and
convert others. There are many who suppose his Theology obscure
and severe. But when we penetrate the veil of Jewish language, we
find it one of Freedom, of Reason, of Love, manly and tender,
generous and intelligent. And this same Theology passing in its
essence from Paul to Augustine, to Luther, to Wesley, has always
been the motive power of human civilization and human
development. It has been the friend of free thought, liberty of
conscience, and universal progress.
I mean then by a true Theology what Paul meant when he said that
God "has not given to us a spirit of fear, but of power, and of love,
and of a sound mind." I mean what he said when he declared that
God had made him a minister of the New Testament, not of the
letter but of the spirit; for the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life.
I mean the Theology which places the substance above the form;
the thing before the name; which looks at the fact, not at the label.
Let us then, brethren, who call ourselves Unitarians, be glad and
grateful for the gospel of faith and hope which we enjoy. And let us
give to others what we have ourselves received. If it be true, as we
have tried to show, that human progress depends largely on a true
Theology we cannot help mankind more than by diffusing widely
that which God has given us of his truth. Freely you have received,
freely give. You who have always lived in this community,
surrounded by this mellow warm light of peace and freedom, do not
know, cannot tell, what those suffer who have been taught from
early childhood to fear God, and to distrust his light in their soul. Do
your part in spreading abroad the beams of a better day. Give to the
world that religion which is not a spirit of fear, but of power, and of
love, and of a sound mind.
THE RISE AND DECLINE
OF THE
 ROMISH CHURCH.
By ATHANASE COQUEREL, Fils.
We live in a time of great and manifold changes. There is one church
that for centuries has had her principal glory in asserting that she
never has changed,—that she has at all times been exactly the
same; but now she can hardly deny that either in accordance with
her own will, or by the force of circumstances, very great changes
have been wrought in her during the last few years. This, if it is true,
must change also the nature, the system, the course of our
controversy with her. The controversy between the two churches has
not always, perhaps, been quite fair; and I should not like to be
unfair to any adversary, whoever he may be. I should not be at ease
in my conscience if I thought I had been unfair to any thing,
especially to any thing religious, of whatever kind that religion may
be; because in any religion, even the most imperfect, there is some
aspiration from this earth to the sky; at least, from human souls to
what they hope or believe to be God. And especially I could not
pardon myself for being in any way unjust to that great church
which has for centuries comforted and sustained a multitude of
souls, and made them better and happier by her teachings. It is a
Christian church; and though I think that Romish Christianity has
been in a very great degree alloyed, and mixed with grave errors,—
and that is exactly what I wish to show,—yet, even under that veil of
human errors, I recognize, I acknowledge, religion, Christianity; and
therefore I bow before it.
I think, however, the changes that have taken place have not altered
the essential character of the Roman Church. I think the changes
that have happened are in conformity with the nature of that
church; really were to be expected, and have nothing absolutely new
in them. We might, perhaps, for a long time have seen them
coming; and, if we had had foresight enough, we might have seen
them from the very first times of that church. Let us try to
understand exactly what she is, what she means; let us try to see
what there is under that name, "Roman Catholic Church." She calls
herself catholic, which means universal, and at the same time she
has a local name. She is for the whole world; but at the same time
she belongs to one city, and she bears the name of that city. Why?
This is the question; and though it seems only a question of name, I
think we shall find by other ways that it is a question of facts. A
second advance requires a change in our polemics with Roman
authority. A new science has been created in our time, which gives
us better means of judging and studying other churches than our
own; that science is called the comparative history of religions. In
England Max Müller, in France Burnouf, and in this country James
Freeman Clarke, have compared the history of several religions.
According to that comparative history, there are rules to be
understood, to be acknowledged, in the development of religion.
One of the rules which I think we can deduce from any comparative
history of religion may be a startling one; and I will use a very
homely comparison, to make myself perfectly understood. Have you
ever seen over a shop door a sign-board, where the name of the old
shop-keeper was painted; and, when his successor came in, he had
the same board covered with a new color, and his own name painted
over the old one? But in time the new paint wore off, so that the old
name reappeared under the new, in such a way that it became
perhaps difficult to distinguish clearly which letters or lines belonged
to the old, and which to the new. If this image appears somewhat
too familiar, let me ask you if you remember what scholars call a
palimpsest. Sometimes in the Middle Ages it was difficult to find
well-prepared parchment on which to write, and there were a great
many monks who had nothing else to do—and it was the best use
they could make of their time—but write or copy the Bible or other
religious books. When they found parchments where were copied
the comedies and tragedies or other works of the heathen, they
thought those were of very little use, and they could very easily have
the writing on those parchments washed out, or covered over with
white paint, in such a way that what had been written there was no
more visible. Then on those parchments they would write the Bible,
or sermons, or any document they thought useful. But the same
thing happened then that happened with the sign-board,—the old
writing reappeared after a time; the white covering spread over the
page disappeared. And thus it happens that scholars are sometimes
pondering for a long time over a page from a sermon of Saint
Augustine, or John Chrysostom, in which they find a verse from
some comedy of Terence or Aristophanes; then they have perhaps
some trouble in making out which is comedy and which is sermon, in
distinguishing exactly what of the writing is old and what is new;
and they have not always perfectly succeeded in that effort.
Now what we see in the sign-board we see also in the religion of the
different churches, when a whole multitude, at one time, pass from
one worship to another. Then, against their will, and perhaps without
their knowing it, they never come into the pale of their new church
empty-handed: they carry with them a number of ideas, and habits,
and turns of thought, which they had found in their old worship. And
thus, after a time, when the fervor of the early days is over, you find
in the new religion, or new worship, a real palimpsest: the old one is
reappearing under the new. That makes itself manifest in a good
many ways; sometimes in ways the most strange and unexpected.
If you ask me, now, remembering this rule, what means the name,
"Roman Catholic Church," I answer: Christianity absorbed into itself
the Roman empire; the Roman empire became Christian in a very
few years, with a most rapid, with a most admirable sway; souls
became conquered in large numbers; they became Christian. But
afterwards it appeared that they were not so perfectly
unheathenized as they were thought to be, or as they thought
themselves: many of their heathenish habits of life, thoughts, and
customs remained even in their very worship. Thus, after Christianity
had absorbed the Roman world, it appeared that the Roman world
had penetrated and impregnated the whole of Christianity; and this
is the Roman Catholic Church. She is Christian, but she is full of the
errors and superstitions that belonged to the old Roman heathenish
world.
To understand what this means we must now try to comprehend
what the old Roman genius was. Here I ask you not to confound it
with the Greek genius, which was in many respects highly superior,
but which had, at that time, passed away in a large measure, and
been replaced everywhere by the Roman genius. What were the
especial traits of character of the Romans? The first, and a very
striking one to those who have travelled and studied in those
countries, is a most vivacious love for tradition. In Rome, at the
present day, you find things that are done, that are said, that are
believed, that are liked, because they were two thousand years ago,
without the people themselves having a very clear notion of it. Their
custom—and it is born in their flesh, and in their blood—is to look
backwards, and to see in the past the motives and the precedents
for their acts and for their belief. Of this I could quote to you a
number of instances. I will choose but one. The first time I was in
Rome I stopped, as every traveller does, on the Piazza del Popolo. In
the midst of that square is an obelisk, and on one side of the
pedestal of that obelisk is written: "This monument was brought to
Rome by the High Pontiff, Cæsar Augustus." I went round the
monument, and on the other face of the same pedestal I read: "This
monument, brought to Rome by the High Pontiff, Cæsar Augustus,
was placed in this square by the High Pontiff, Sextus V." And then I
remembered that one of those High Pontiffs was a Roman heathen,
an Emperor; and that the other was a Christian, was a priest, was a
pope; and I was astonished, at first sight, to find on two faces of the
same stone the same title given to those two representatives of very
different religions. Afterwards, I observed that this was no
extraordinary case, but that in many other places in Rome instances
of the same kind were to be found. I inquired a little more deeply,
perhaps, than some other travellers, into the meaning of those
words. I asked myself why this pope, Sextus V., and this Emperor
Augustus, should each be called "pontiff." What is the meaning of
"pontiff"? "Pontiff" means bridge-maker, bridge-builder. Why are
they called in that way? Here is the explanation of that fact. In the
very first years of the existence of Rome, at a time of which we have
a very fabulous history, and but few existing monuments,—the little
town of Rome, not built on seven hills as is generally supposed;
there are eleven of them now; then there were within the town less
than seven even,—that little town had a great deal to fear from any
enemy which should take one of the hills that were out of town, the
Janiculum, because the Janiculum is higher than the others, and
from that hill an enemy could very easily throw stones, fire, or any
means of destruction, into the town. The Janiculum was separated
from the town by the Tiber. Then the first necessity for the defence
of that little town of Rome was to have a bridge. They had built a
wooden bridge over the Tiber, and a great point of interest to the
town was that this bridge should be kept always in good order, so
that at any moment troops could pass over it. Then, with the special
genius of the Romans, of which we have other instances, they
ordained, curiously enough, that the men who were a corporation to
take care of that bridge should be sacred; that their function,
necessary to the defence of the town, should be considered holy;
that they should be priests, and the highest of them was called "the
high bridge-maker." So it happened that there was in Rome a
corporation of bridge-makers, pontifices, of whom the head was the
most sacred of all Romans, because in those days his life, and the
life of his companions, was deemed necessary to the safety of the
town. Things changed; very soon Rome was large enough not to
care about the Janiculum; very soon Rome conquered a part of Italy,
then the whole of Italy, and finally almost the whole of the world.
But when once something is done in Rome, it remains done; when
once a thing is said, it remains said, and is repeated; and thus it
happened that the privilege of the bridge-makers' corporation, as
beings sacred and holy, remained; and that privilege made
everybody respect them; gave them a sort of moral power. Then
kings wanted to be made High Bridge-makers; after kings, consuls;
later, dictators; and, later, emperors themselves made themselves
High Bridge-makers, which meant the most sacred persons in the
town.
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