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Chapter 6: Arrays

TRUE/FALSE

1. Many newer programming languages such as C++, Java, and C# use subscript 1 to access the first
element of the array.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 214

2. You use subscripts 1 through 10 to access the elements in a ten element array.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 214

3. Many newer programming languages such as C++, Java, and C# use the bracket notation for arrays.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 214

4. Declaring a named constant makes code easier to modify and understand.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 224

5. A parallel array is an array that stores another array in each element.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 230

6. Parallel arrays must contain the same data type.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 230

7. You can improve the efficiency of a program by leaving a loop as soon as a match is found in the
array.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 234

8. Arrays cannot be used if you need to search for a range of values.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 237

9. When you have a five element array and use subscript 8, your subscript is said to be out of bounds.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 243

10. The for loop is a good tool when working with arrays because you frequently need to process every
element of an array from beginning to end.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 244

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. An array is a(n) ____ of values in computer memory.

a. list c. set
b. accumulation d. record
 ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 214

2. A(n) ____ is another name for a subscript.

a. pointer c. index
b. sequence d. place holder
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 214

3. The number of elements in an array is called the ____ of the array.

a. width c. height
b. size d. depth
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 214

4. All array elements have the same group ____.

a. subscript c. memory location
b. name d. value
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 214

5. Array elements all have the same ____ in common.

a. pointer c. value
b. memory location d. data type
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 214

6. Array subscripts are always a sequence of ____.

a. large numbers c. negative values
b. characters d. integers
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 214

7. In all languages, subscript values must be sequential ____.

a. characters c. real numbers
b. fractions d. integers
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 214

8. A program contains an array that holds all the names of the days of the week. Which of the following
is true?
a. The highest subscript is 6. c. The lowest subscript is 1.
b. The highest subscript is 7. d. The highest subscript is 12.
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 214

9. Providing array values is sometimes called ____.

a. creating the array c. accumulating the array
b. declaring the array d. populating the array
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 215

10. An array can be used to replace ____.

a. records c. nested decisions
b. methods d. loops
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 216
11. The true benefit of using an array lies in your ability to use a ____ as a subscript to the array.
a. constant c. command
b. loop d. variable
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 219

12. Named ____ hold values that do not change during a program’s execution.
a. constants c. objects
b. variables d. items
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 224

13. Besides making your code easier to modify, using a ____ makes the code easier to understand.
a. standard constant c. literal constant
b. named constant d. named variable
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 224

14. One advantage to using a named constant is that the statement becomes ____.
a. self-perpetuating c. self-referencing
b. self-documenting d. self-mitigating
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 225

15. When you search through a list from one end to the other, you are performing a ____.
a. linear search c. quadratic search
b. binary search d. single lookup
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 226

16. If you declare a variable to be Boolean, you can set its value to ____.
a. any number c. any integer
b. true or false d. 1 or -1
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 229

17. Which statement is true of arrays?

a. Only whole numbers can be used as array subscripts.
b. Only whole numbers can be stored in arrays.
c. Arrays cause more work for the programmer, but allow faster program execution.
d. Array elements cannot be reset after the array is declared.
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 214

18. A ____ relates parallel arrays.

a. superscript c. subscript
b. key d. postscript
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 230

19. Parallel arrays are most useful when value pairs have a(n) ____ relationship.
a. direct c. linked
b. indirect d. tiered
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 234
 20. A ____ search starts looking in the middle of a sorted list, and then determines whether it should
continue higher or lower.
a. linear c. quadratic
b. binary d. single lookup
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 236

21. To search an array for a(n) ____ match, you can store either the highest or lowest value
of each range for comparison.
a. flag c. subscript
b. index d. range
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 238-240

22. Every array has a(n) ____ size.

a. infinite c. variable
b. finite d. constant
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 241

23. The number of bytes in an array is always a multiple of the number of ____ in an array.
a. subscripts c. iterators
b. elements d. indexes
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 241

24. In every programming language, when you access data stored in an array, it is important to use a ____
containing a value that accesses memory occupied by the array.
a. superscript c. key
b. subscript d. condition
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 241

25. When a subscript is not within the range of acceptable subscripts, it is said to be ____.
a. a superscript c. out of bounds
b. flagged d. indexed
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 243

COMPLETION

1. Use a(n) ____________________ to indicate the position of a particular item within an array.

ANS: subscript

PTS: 1 REF: 214

2. All array elements have the same ____________________ name, but each individual element also has
a unique subscript indicating how far away it is from the first element.

ANS: group

PTS: 1 REF: 214

3. Each array ____________________ is a single variable.

 ANS: element

PTS: 1 REF: 214

4. When working with arrays, you can use ____________________ in

several ways: To hold the size of an array, as the array values, and as a subscript .

ANS: constants

PTS: 1 REF: 215

5. A(n) ____________________ is a variable set to indicate whether some event has occurred.

ANS: flag

PTS: 1 REF: 229

MATCHING

Match each term with a statement below.

a. range of values f. element
b. out of bounds g. for loop
c. flag h. constant
d. parallel arrays i. binary search
e. array j. populating the array
1. A series of values in computer memory
2. Each separate item in an array
3. Providing array values
4. Can hold the size of an array
5. A variable that you set to indicate whether some event has occurred
6. Starts looking in the middle of a sorted list, and then determines whether it should continue higher or
lower
7. Any series of contiguous values
8. A subscript that is not within the range of acceptable subscripts
9. A particularly convenient tool when working with arrays because you frequently need to process every
element of an array
10. In this type of array, each element in one array is associated with the element in the same relative
position in the other array

1. ANS: E PTS: 1 REF: 214

2. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 214
3. ANS: J PTS: 1 REF: 215
4. ANS: H PTS: 1 REF: 224
5. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 229
6. ANS: I PTS: 1 REF: 236
7. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 237
8. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 243
9. ANS: G PTS: 1 REF: 244
10. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 230
SHORT ANSWER

1. Describe an array and provide an example of a real-life equivalent to an array.

ANS:
An array is a series or list of variables in computer memory, all of which have the same name and data
type but are differentiated with special numbers called subscripts. Usually, all the values in an array
have something in common; for example, they might represent a list of employee ID numbers or a list
of prices for items a store sells. A subscript, also called an index, is a number that indicates the
position of a particular item within an array.

Whenever you require multiple storage locations for objects, you are using a real-life counterpart of a
programming array. For example, if you store important papers in a series of file folders and label each
folder with a consecutive letter of the alphabet, then you are using the equivalent of an array.

PTS: 1 REF: 214 TOP: Critical Thinking

2. How do you reference the elements in an array?

ANS:
All array elements have the same group name, but each individual element also has a unique subscript
indicating how far away it is from the first element. Therefore, any array’s subscripts are always a
sequence of integers such as 0 through 4 or 0 through 9.

Depending on the syntax rules of the programming language you use, you place the subscript within
parentheses or square brackets following the group name.

PTS: 1 REF: 214 TOP: Critical Thinking

3. Why is it important to learn to use arrays correctly?

ANS:
Learning to use arrays correctly can make many programming tasks far more efficient and
professional. When you understand how to use arrays, you will be able to provide elegant solutions to
problems that otherwise would require tedious programming steps.

PTS: 1 REF: 223 TOP: Critical Thinking

4. How can constants be used when working with arrays?

ANS:
• To hold the size of an array
• As the array values
• As a subscript

PTS: 1 REF: 224 TOP: Critical Thinking

5. How do you find a particular value in an array? Provide an example.

ANS:
 The technique for verifying that an item number exists involves setting a subscript to 0 and setting a
flag variable to indicate that you have not yet determined whether the customer’s order is valid. A flag
is a variable that you set to indicate whether some event has occurred; frequently it holds a true or false
value. For example, you can set a string variable named foundIt to “N”, indicating “No”. Then you
compare the customer’s ordered item number to the first item in the array. If the customer-ordered
item matches the first item in the array, you can set the flag variable to “Y”, or any other value that is
not “N”. If the items do not match, you increase the subscript and continue to look down the list of
numbers stored in the array. If you check all six valid item numbers and the customer item matches
none of them, then the flag variable foundIt still holds the value “N”. If the flag variable is “N”
after you have looked through the entire list, you can issue an error message indicating that no match
was ever found.

PTS: 1 REF: 229 TOP: Critical Thinking

6. Why is it desirable to leave the loop as soon as a match is found?

ANS:
Leaving the loop as soon as a match is found improves the program’s efficiency. The larger the array,
the more beneficial it becomes to exit the searching loop as soon as you find the desired value.

PTS: 1 REF: 234 TOP: Critical Thinking

7. Consider a mail-order business in which customers get a discount based on the quantity they order. In
writing a program to compute the discount based on a customer’s order quantity, why is it not a good
idea to construct an array with as many elements as a customer might want to order, and store the
appropriate discount associated with each number?

ANS:
This approach has at least three drawbacks:
• It requires a very large array that uses a lot of memory.
• You must store the same value repeatedly. For example, each of the first nine elements receives the
same value, 0, and each of the next four elements receives the same value, 10.
• How do you know when you have enough array elements? Is a customer order quantity of 75 items
enough? What if a customer orders 100 or 1,000 items? No matter how many elements you place in
the array, there’s always a chance that a customer will order more.

PTS: 1 REF: 237 TOP: Critical Thinking

8. What is an advantage of using an array to match a value in a range of values?

ANS:
When using an array to store range limits, you use a loop to make a series of comparisons that would
otherwise require many separate decisions. The program that determines customer discount rates is
written using fewer instructions than would be required if you did not use an array, and modifications
to your method will be easier to make in the future.

PTS: 1 REF: 240 TOP: Critical Thinking

9. What happens when a beginning programmer forgets that array subscripts start with 0?

ANS:
A common error by beginning programmers is to forget that array subscripts start with 0. If you
assume that an array’s first subscript is 1, you will always be “off by one” in your array manipulation.
 PTS: 1 REF: 241 TOP: Critical Thinking

10. What happens if a subscript value is negative or higher than the number of elements in an array?

ANS:
Some programming languages will stop execution of the program and issue an error message. Other
programming languages will not issue an error message but will access a value in a memory location
that is outside the area occupied by the array. That area might contain garbage, or worse, it
accidentally might contain the name of an incorrect month. Either way, a logical error occurs.

PTS: 1 REF: 242-243 TOP: Critical Thinking

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EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATION
 EVOLUTION
AND ADAPTATION

BY

THOMAS HUNT MORGAN, Ph.D.

New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd.

1908

All rights reserved

 Copyright, 1903,

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1903. Reprinted

January, 1908.

Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
 TO

Professor William Keith Brooks

AS A TOKEN OF SINCERE ADMIRATION AND RESPECT

 PREFACE

The adaptation of animals and plants to the conditions under

which they live has always excited the interest, and also the
imagination, of philosophers and scientists; for this relation between
the organism and its environment is one of the most characteristic
features of living things. The question at once suggests itself: How
has such a relation been brought about? Is it due to something
inherent in the living matter itself, or is it something that has been,
as it were, superimposed upon it? An example may make my
meaning clearer. No one will suppose that there is anything inherent
in iron and other metals that would cause them to produce an
engine if left to themselves. The particular arrangement of the
pieces has been superimposed upon the metals, so that they now
fulfil a purpose, or use. Have the materials of which organisms are
composed been given a definite arrangement, so that they fulfil the
purpose of maintaining the existence of the organism; and if so, how
has this been accomplished? It is the object of the following pages
to discuss this question in all its bearings, and to give, as far as
possible, an idea of the present state of biological thought
concerning the problem. I trust that the reader will not be
disappointed if he finds in the sequel that many of the most
fundamental questions in regard to adaptation are still unsettled.
In attempting to state the problem as clearly as possible, I fear
that it may appear that at times I have “taken sides,” when I should
only have been justified in stating the different aspects of the
question. But this will do little harm provided the issue has been
sharply drawn. Indeed, it seems to me that the only scientific value,
that a discussion of what the French call “les grands problèmes de la
Biologie” has, is to get a clearer understanding of the relation of
what is known to what is unknown or only surmised.
In some quarters speculation concerning the origin of the
adaptation of living things is frowned upon, but I have failed to
observe that the critics themselves refrain entirely from theorizing.
They shut one door only to open another, which also leads out into
the dark. To deny the right to speculative thought would be to deny
the right to use one of the best tools of research.
Yet it must be admitted that all speculation is not equally valuable.
The advance of science in the last hundred years has shown that the
kind of speculation that has real worth is that which leads the way to
further research and possible discovery. Speculation that leads to
this end must be recognized as legitimate. It becomes useless when
it deals with problems that cannot be put to the actual test of
observation or experiment. It is in this spirit that I have approached
the topics discussed in the following pages.
The unsophisticated man believes that all other animals exist to
minister to his welfare; and from this point of view their adaptations
are thought of solely in their relation to himself. A step in advance
was taken when the idea was conceived that adaptations are for the
good of the organisms themselves. It seemed a further advance
when the conclusion was reached that the origin of adaptations
could be accounted for, as the result of the benefit that they
conferred on their possessor. This view was the outcome of the
acceptation of the theory of evolution, combined with Darwin’s
theory of natural selection. It is the view held by most biologists at
the present time; but I venture to prophesy that if any one will
undertake to question modern zoologists and botanists concerning
their relation to the Darwinian theory, he will find that, while
professing in a general way to hold this theory, most biologists have
many reservations and doubts, which they either keep to themselves
or, at any rate, do not allow to interfere either with their teaching of
the Darwinian doctrine or with the applications that they may make
of it in their writings. The claim of the opponents of the theory that
Darwinism has become a dogma contains more truth than the
nominal followers of this school find pleasant to hear; but let us not,
therefore, too hastily conclude that Darwin’s theory is without value
in relation to one side of the problem of adaptation; for, while we
can profitably reject, as I believe, much of the theory of natural
selection, and more especially the idea that adaptations have arisen
because of their usefulness, yet the fact that living things must be
adapted more or less well to their environment in order to remain in
existence may, after all, account for the widespread occurrence of
adaptation in animals and plants. It is this point of view that will be
developed in the following pages.
I am fully aware of the danger in attempting to cover so wide a
field as that of “Evolution and Adaptation,” and I cannot hope to
escape the criticism that is certain to be directed against a specialist
who ventures nowadays beyond the immediate field of his own
researches; yet, in my own defence, I may state that the whole
point of view underlying the position here taken is the immediate
outcome of my work on regeneration. One of the general questions
that I have always kept before me in my study of regenerative
phenomena is how such a useful acquirement as the power to
replace lost parts has arisen, and whether the Darwinian hypothesis
is adequate to explain the result. The conclusion that I have reached
is that the theory is entirely inadequate to account for the origin of
the power to regenerate; and it seemed to me, therefore, desirable
to reëxamine the whole question of adaptation, for might it not
prove true here, also, that the theory of natural selection was
inapplicable? This was my starting-point. The results of my
examination are given in the following pages.
I am deeply indebted to Professor G. H. Parker and to Professor E.
G. Conklin for advice and friendly criticism; and in connection with
the revision of the proof I am under many obligations to Professor
Joseph W. Warren and to Professor E. A. Andrews. Without their
generous help I should scarcely have ventured into a field so full of
pitfalls.
Bryn Mawr, Penn., June 10, 1903.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
PAGE
The Problem of Adaptation 1
– Structural Adaptations 1
– Adaptations for the Good of the 19
Species
– Organs of Little Use to the 22
Individual
– Changes in the Organism that are 25
of No Use to the Individual or to
the Race
– Comparison with Inorganic 26
Phenomena

CHAPTER II
The Theory of Evolution 30
– Evidence in Favor of the 32
Transmutation Theory
– – Evidence from Classification and 32
from Comparative Anatomy
– – The Geological Evidence 39
– – Evidence from Direct Observation 43
and Experiment
– – Modern Criticism of the Theory of 44
Evolution

CHAPTER III
The Theory of Evolution (continued) 58
– The Evidence from Embryology 58
– – The Recapitulation Theory 58
– Conclusions 84

CHAPTER IV
Darwin’s Theories of Artificial and of 91
Natural Selection
– The Principle of Selection 91
– Variation and Competition in 104
Nature
– The Theory of Natural Selection 116

CHAPTER V
The Theory of Natural Selection 129
(continued)
– Objections to the Theory of Natural 129
Selection
– Sterility between Species 147
– Weismann’s Germinal Selection 154

CHAPTER VI
Darwin’s Theory of Sexual Selection 167
– Sexual Selection 167
– General Criticism of the Theory of 213
Sexual Selection

CHAPTER VII
The Inheritance of Acquired Characters 222
– Lamarck’s Theory 222
– Darwin’s Hypothesis of Pangenesis 233
– The Neo-Lamarckian School 240

CHAPTER VIII
Continuous and Discontinuous Variation 261
and Heredity

– Continuous Variation 261

– Heredity and Continuous Variation 270
– Discontinuous Variation 272
– Mendel’s Law 278
– The Mutation Theory of De Vries 287
– Conclusions 297

CHAPTER IX
Evolution as the Result of External and 300
Internal Factors
– The Effect of External Influences 300
– Responsive Changes in the 319
Organism that adapt it to the New
Environment
– Nägeli’s Perfecting Principle 325

CHAPTER X
The Origin of the Different Kinds of 340
Adaptations
– Form and Symmetry 340
– Mutual Adaptation of Colonial 350
Forms
– Degeneration 352
– Protective Coloration 357
– Sexual Dimorphism and 360
Trimorphism
– Length of Life as an Adaptation 370
– Organs of Extreme Perfection 371
– Secondary Sexual Organs as 372
Adaptations
– Individual Adjustments as 375
Adaptations
– Color Changes as Individual 375
Adaptations
– Increase of Organs through Use 376
and Decrease through Disuse
– Reactions of the Organism to 377
Poisons, etc.
– Regeneration 379

CHAPTER XI
Tropisms and Instincts as Adaptations 382

CHAPTER XII
Sex as an Adaptation 414
– The Different Kinds of Sexual 414
Individuals
– The Determination of Sex 422
– Sex as a Phenomenon of 439
Adaptation

CHAPTER XIII
Summary and General Conclusions 452

INDEX 465
EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATION
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM OF ADAPTATION

Between an organism and its environment there takes place a

constant interchange of energy and of material. This is, in general,
also true for all bodies whether living or lifeless; but in the living
organism this relation is a peculiar one; first, because the plant or
the animal is so constructed that it is suited to a particular set of
physical conditions, and, second, because it may so respond to a
change in the outer world that it further adjusts itself to changing
conditions, i.e. the response may be of such a kind that it better
insures the existence of the individual, or of the race. The two ideas
contained in the foregoing statement cover, in a general way, what
we mean by the adaptation of living things. The following examples
will serve to illustrate some of the very diverse phenomena that are
generally included under this head.
 Structural Adaptations
The most striking cases of adaptations are those in which a
special, in the sense of an unusual, relation exists between the
individual and its surroundings. For example, the foreleg of the mole
is admirably suited for digging underground. A similar modification is
found in an entirely different group of the animal kingdom, namely,
in the mole-cricket, in which the first legs are also well suited for
digging. By their use the mole-cricket makes a burrow near the
surface of the ground, similar to, but of course much smaller than,
that made by the mole. In both of these cases the adaptation is the
more obvious, because, while the leg of the mole is formed on the
same general plan as that of other vertebrates, and the leg of the
mole-cricket has the same fundamental structure as that of other
insects, yet in both cases the details of structure and the general
proportions have been so altered, that the leg is fitted for entirely
different purposes from that to which the legs of other vertebrates
and of other insects are put. The wing of the bat is another excellent
case of a special adaptation. It is a modified fore-limb having a
strong membrane stretched between the fingers, which are greatly
elongated. Here we find a structure, which in other mammals is used
as an organ for supporting the body, and for progression on the
ground, changed into one for flying in the air.
The tails of mammals show a number of different adaptations. The
tail is prehensile in some of the monkeys; and not only can the
monkey direct its tail toward a branch in order to grasp it, but the
tail can be wrapped around the branch and hold on so firmly that
the monkey can swing freely, hanging by its tail alone. The animal
has thus a sort of fifth hand, one as it were in the middle line of the
body, which can be used as a hold-fast, while the fingered hands are
put to other uses. In the squirrels the bushy tail serves as a
protection during the winter for those parts of the body not so
thickly covered by hair. The tail of the horse is used to brush away
the flies that settle on the hind parts of the body. In other mammals,
the dog, the cat, and the rat, for example, the tail is of less obvious
use, although the suggestion has been made that it may serve as a
sort of rudder when the animal is running rapidly. In several other
cases, as in the rabbit and in the higher apes, the tail is very short,
and is of no apparent use; and in man it has completely
disappeared.
A peculiar case of adaptation is the so-called basket on the third
pair of legs of the worker honey-bee. A depression of the outer
surface of the tibia is arched over by stiff hairs. The pollen collected
from the stamens of flowers is stowed away in this receptacle by
means of the other pairs of legs. The structure is unique, and is not
found in any other insects except the bees. It is, moreover, present
only in the worker bees, and is absent in the queen and the males.
The preceding cases, in which the adapted parts are used for the
ordinary purposes of life of the individual, are not essentially
different from the cases in which the organ is used to protect the
animal from its enemies. The bad taste of certain insects is supposed
to protect them from being eaten by birds. Cases like this of passive
protection grade off in turn into those in which, by some reflex or
voluntary act, the animal protects itself. The bad-smelling horns of
the caterpillar of the black swallow-tailed butterfly (Papilio
polyxenes) are thrust out when the animal is touched, and it is
believed that they serve to protect the caterpillar from attack. The
fœtid secretion of the glands of the skunk is believed to serve as a
protection to the animal, although the presence of the nauseous
odor may lead finally to the extermination of the skunk by man. The
sting of bees and of wasps serves to protect the individual from
attack. The sting was originally an ovipositor, and used in laying the
eggs. It has, secondarily, been changed into an organ of offence.
The special instincts and reflex acts furnish a striking group of
adaptations. The building of the spider’s web is one of the most
remarkable cases of this kind. The construction of the web cannot
be the result of imitation, since, in many instances, the young are
born in the spring of the year following the death of the parents.
Each species of spider has its own type of web, and each web has as
characteristic a form as has the spider itself. It is also important to
find that a certain type of web may be characteristic of an entire
family of spiders. Since, in many cases, the web is the means of
securing the insects used for food, it fulfils a purpose necessary for
the welfare of the spider.
The making of the nests by birds appears to be also in large part
an instinctive act; although some writers are inclined to think that
memory of the nest in which the young birds lived plays a part in
their actions, and imitation of the old birds at the time of nest-
building may, perhaps, also enter into the result. It has been stated
that the first nest built by young birds is less perfect than that built
by older birds, but this may be due to the bird’s learning something
themselves in building their nests, i.e. to the perfecting of the
instinct in the individual that makes use of it. In any case much
remains that must be purely instinctive. The construction of the
comb by bees appears to be largely, perhaps entirely, an instinctive
act. That this is the case was shown by isolating young workers as
soon as they emerged from the cell, and before they could have had
any experience in seeing comb built. When given some wax they set
to work to make a comb, and made the characteristic six-sided
structures like those made by the bees in a hive. The formation of so
remarkable a structure as the comb is worthy of admiration, for, with
the greatest economy of material, a most perfect storeroom for the
preservation of the honey is secured. This adaptation appears almost
in the nature of foresight, for the store of honey is used not only to
feed the young, but may be drawn on by the bees themselves in
time of need. It is true that a comparison with other kinds of bees
makes it probable that the comb was first made for the eggs and
larvæ, and only later became used as a storehouse, but so far as its
form is concerned there is the same economy of constructive
materials in either case.
The behavior of young birds, more especially those that take care
of themselves from the moment they leave the egg, furnishes a
number of cases of instincts that are protective. If, for example, a
flock of young pheasants is suddenly disturbed, the birds at once
squat down on the ground, and remain perfectly quiet until the
danger is past. Their resemblance to the ground is so perfect that
they are almost invisible so long as they remain quiet. If, instead of
remaining still, they were to attempt to run away when disturbed,
they would be much more easily seen.
Certain solitary wasps (Ammophila) have the habit of stinging
caterpillars and spiders, and dragging them to their nests, where
they are stored away for the future use of the young that hatch from
the eggs laid by the wasp on the body of the prey. As a result of the
sting which the wasp administers to the caterpillar, the latter is
paralyzed, and cannot escape from the hole in which it is stored,
where it serves as food for the young wasp that emerges from the
egg. It was originally claimed by Forel that the wasp stings the
caterpillar in such a way that the central nervous system is always
pierced, and many subsequent naturalists have marvelled at the
perfection of such a wonderful instinct. But the recent results of the
Peckhams have made it clear that the act of the wasp is not carried
out with the precision previously supposed, although it is true that
the wasp pierces the caterpillar on the lower surface where the
ventral chain of ganglia lies. The habit of this wasp is not very
dissimilar from that shown by many other kinds of wasps that sting
their captive in order to quiet it. We need not imagine in this case
that the act carries with it the consciousness that the caterpillar,
quieted in this way, will be unable to escape before the young wasps
have hatched.
The resemblance in color of many animals to their natural
backgrounds has in recent years excited the interest and imagination
of many naturalists. The name of protective coloration has been
given to this group of phenomena. The following cases which have
less the appearance of purely imaginative writing may serve by way
of illustration. A striking example is that of the ptarmigan which has
a pure white coat in winter, and a brown coat in summer. The white
winter plumage renders the animal less conspicuous against the
background of snow, while in summer the plumage is said to closely
resemble the lichen-covered ground on which the bird rests. The
snowy owl is a northern bird, whose color is supposed to make it
less conspicuous, and may serve either as a protection against
enemies, or may allow the owl to approach its prey unseen. It
should not pass unnoticed, however, that there are white birds in
other parts of the world, where their white color cannot be of any
use to them as a protection. The white cockatoos, for example, are
tropical birds, living amongst green foliage, where their color must
make them conspicuous, rather than the reverse.
The polar bear is the only member of the family that is white, and
while this can scarcely be said to protect it from enemies, because it
is improbable that it has anything to fear from the other animals of
the ice-fields, yet it may be claimed that the color is an adaptation to
allow the animal to approach unseen its prey.
In the desert many animals are sand-colored, as seen for instance
in the tawny color of the lion, the giraffe, the antelopes, and of
many birds that live on or near the ground.
It has been pointed out that in the tropics and temperate zones
there are many greenish and yellowish birds whose colors harmonize
with the green and yellow of the trees amongst which they live; but
on the other hand we must not forget that in all climes there are
numbers of birds brilliantly colored, and many of these do not
appear to be protected in any special way. The tanagers, humming-
birds, parrots, Chinese pheasants, birds of paradise, etc., are
extremely conspicuous, and so far as we can see they must be much
exposed on account of the color of their plumage. Whether,
therefore, we are justified in picking out certain cases as examples
of adaptation, because of an agreement in color between the
organism and its surroundings, and in neglecting all others, is, as
has been already said, a point to be further examined.
Not only among mammals and birds have many cases of
protective coloration been described by writers dealing with this
subject, but in nearly every group of the animal kingdom similar
cases have been recognized. The green and brown color of lizards
may protect them, the green color of many frogs is supposed to
conceal them as they sit amongst the plants on the edge of a stream
or pond. The gray-brown color of the toad has been described as a
resemblance to the dry ground, while the brilliant green of several
tree-frogs conceals them very effectively amongst the leaves. Many
fishes are brilliantly colored, and it has even been suggested that
those living amongst corals and sea-anemonies have acquired their
colors as a protection, but Darwin states that they appeared to him
very conspicuous even in their highly colored environment.
Amongst insects innumerable cases of adaptive coloration have
been described. In fact this is the favorite group for illustrating the
marvels of protective coloration. A few examples will here serve our
purpose. The oft-cited case of the butterfly Kallima is, apparently, a
striking instance of protective resemblance. When at rest the wings
are held together over the back, as in nearly all butterflies, so that
only the under surface is exposed. This surface has an
unquestionably close resemblance to a brown leaf. It is said on no
less authority than that of Wallace that when this butterfly alights on
a bush it is almost impossible to distinguish between it and a dead
leaf. The special point in the resemblance to which attention is most
often called is the distinct line running obliquely across the wings
which looks like the midrib of a leaf. Whether the need of such a
close resemblance to a leaf is requisite for the life of this butterfly,
we do not know, of course, and so long as we do not have this
information there is danger that the case may prove too much, for, if
it should turn out that this remarkable case is accidental the view in
regard to the resemblance may be endangered.
Amongst caterpillars there are many cases of remarkable
resemblances in color between the animal and its surroundings. The
green color of many of those forms that remain on the leaves of the
food-plant during the day will give, even to the most casual
observer, the impression that the color is for the purpose of
concealment; and that it does serve to conceal the animal there can
be no doubt. But even from the point of view of those who maintain
that this color has been acquired because of its protective value it
must be admitted that the color is insufficient, because some of
these same green caterpillars are marvellously armed with an array
of spines which are also supposed to be a protection against
enemies. Equally well protected are the brown and mottled
geometrid caterpillars. These have, moreover, the striking and
unusual habit of fixing themselves by the posterior pairs of false
legs, and standing still and rigid in an oblique position on the twigs
to which they are affixed. So close is their resemblance to a short
twig, that even when their exact position is known it is very difficult
to distinguish them.
Grasshoppers that alight on the ground are, in many cases, so
similar to the surface of the ground that unless their exact location is
known they easily escape attention, while the green color of the
katydid, a member of the same group of orthoptera, protects it from
view in the green foliage of the trees where it lives. The veinlike
wings certainly suggest a resemblance to a leaf, but whether there is
any necessity for so close an imitation may be questioned.
There can be little doubt in some of these cases that the color of
the animal may be a protection to it, but as has been hinted already,
it is another question whether it acquired these colors because of
their usefulness. Nevertheless, if the color is useful to its possessor,
it is an adaptation in our sense of the word, without regard to the
way in which it has been acquired. Even, for instance, if the
resemblance were purely the outcome of chance in the sense that
the color appeared without relation to the surroundings, it would still
be an adaptation if it were of use to the animal under the ordinary
conditions of life.
In the lower groups numerous cases in which animals resemble
their surroundings could be given. Such cases are known in
crustacea, worms, mollusks, hydroids, etc., and the possible value of
these resemblances may be admitted in many instances.
It is rather curious that so few cases of adaptive coloration have
been described for plants. No one supposes that the slate color of
the lichen is connected with the color of the rocks on which it grows,
in the sense that the resemblance is of any use to the lichen. Nor
does the color of the marine red algæ serve in any way to protect
the plants so far as is known. The green color of nearly all the higher
plants is obviously connected with the substance, chlorophyl, that is
essential for the processes of assimilation, and has no relation to
external objects. But when we come to the colors of flowers we
meet with curious cases of adaptation, at least according to the
generally accepted point of view. For it is believed by many
naturalists that the color of the corolla of flowering plants is
connected with the visits of insects to the flowers, and these visits
are in many cases essential for the cross-fertilization of the flowers.
This adaptation is one useful to the species, rather than the
individual, and belongs to another category.
The leaf of the Venus’s fly-trap, which suddenly closes together
from the sides when a fly or other light body comes to rest on it, is
certainly a remarkable adaptation. A copious secretion of a digestive
fluid is poured out on the surface of the leaf, and the products of
digestion are absorbed. There can be no question that this
contrivance is of some use to the plant. In other insectivorous
plants, the pitcher plants, the leaves are transformed into pitchers.
In Nepenthes a digestive fluid is secreted from the walls. A line of
glands secreting a sweet fluid serves to attract insects to the top of
the pitcher, whence they may wander or fall into the fluid inside, and
there being drowned, they are digested. A lidlike cover projecting
over the opening of the pitcher is supposed to be of use to keep out
the rain.
In Utricularia, a submerged water-plant, the tips of the leaves are
changed into small bladders, each having a small entrance closed by
an elastic valve opening inwards. Small snails and crustaceans can
pass into this opening, to which they are guided by small
outgrowths; but once in the cup they cannot get out again, and, in
fact, small animals are generally found in the bladders where they
die and their substance is absorbed by forked hairs projecting into
the interior of the bladder.
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