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 1.1 Computer Programs
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-03
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-03

4. Which parts of the computer store program code?

1. CPU
2. Secondary storage
3. Monitor
4. Keyboard

Title
Which parts of the computer store program code?
type
mc
Section
1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-04

5. Which of the following items is NOT considered hardware:

1. a keyboard.
2. a speaker.
3. a program.
4. a microphone.

Title
What is considered hardware
type
mc
Section
1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-05

6. The Central Processing Unit is primarily responsible for:

1. ensuring data persists when electrical power is turned off.
2. enabling a human user to interact with the computer.
3. interconnecting computers that are separated by distance.
4. performing program control and data processing.

Title
What is a CPU?
type
mc
 Section
1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-06

7. Computers store both data and programs not currently running in:
1. Primary storage.
2. Central processing unit.
3. Secondary storage.
4. Transistors.

Title
Where are programs and data stored?
type
mc
Section
1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-07

8. Which of the following hardware devices is NOT considered an input device?

1. Keyboard
2. Monitor
3. Mouse
4. Microphone

Title
What is considered input hardware?
type
mc
Section
1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-08

9. Which of the following hardware devices is NOT considered an output device?

1. Speaker
2. Monitor
3. Printer
4. Microphone

Title
What is considered output hardware?
type
mc
Section
 1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-09

10. When the computer begins to run a program,

1. the program is moved from secondary storage to memory.
2. the program is moved from secondary storage to the network controller.
3. the program is moved from the CPU to memory.
4. the program is moved from the CPU to secondary storage.

Title
What happens when a program begins to run?
type
mc
Section
1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-10
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-10

11. What part of the computer carries out arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division?
1. CPU
2. Network
3. Primary storage
4. Secondary storage

Title
What part of the computer performs arithmetic?
type
mc
Section
1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-11
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-11

12. High-level programming languages were created to:

1. Allow programmers to describe the solution to a problem one CPU instruction at
a time
2. Make programming less error-prone and less tedious
3. Maximize the running time of programs
4. Translate CPU instructions into high-level instructions
 Title
Why were high-level programming languages created?
type
mc
Section
1.3 The Python Programming Language
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-12
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-12

13. What are two of the most important benefits of the Python language?
1. Advanced mathematical equations and fast programs
2. Ease of use and fast programs
3. Ease of use and portability
4. Fast programs and smaller programs

Title
What are the benefits of Python?
type
mc
Section
1.3 The Python Programming Language
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-13
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-13

14. What is wrong with the following code snippet:

15. num1 = 10
16. num2 = 20
17. num3 = 30
total = Num1 + Num2 + Num3

1. Nothing, the variable total will be the sum of the three numbers
2. Python is case sensitive so Num1, Num2, and Num3 are undefined
3. total must be initialized to zero first
4. The numbers should be 10.0, 20.0 and 30.0

Title
What is wrong with the following code snippet?
type
mc
Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-14
18. An integrated development environment bundles tools for programming into a unified
application. What kinds of tools are usually included?
1. A web browser
2. An editor and an interpreter
3. Presentation tools
4. Source files and bytecode files

Title
What kind of tools can be found in an integrated development environment?
type
mc
Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-15
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-15

19. What is the difference between an editor and an interpreter?

1. An editor allows program files to be entered and modified; an interpreter reads
and executes program files
2. An editor allows program files to be entered and modified; an interpreter produces
an indexed database of terms and keywords
3. An editor allows program files to be entered and modified; an interpreter produces
an organized list of files
4. An editor converts program files into an executable program; an interpreter allows
program files to be entered and modified

Title
What is the difference between an editor and a compiler?
type
mc
Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-16

20. What reads Python programs and executes the program instructions?
1. editor
2. CPU
3. compiler
4. interpreter

Title
What is used to execute a Python program?
type
 mc
Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-17

21. What extension is used for Python files?

1. .Python
2. .py
3. .dat
4. .txt

Title
What extension is used for Python source files?
type
mc
Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-18

22. By entering the command python3, the program runs in which mode?
1. interactive mode
2. print mode
3. command mode
4. backup mode

Title
What mode is invoked when the user enters "python" at the command prompt?
type
mc
Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-19

23. The Python compiler reads the file containing your source code and converts it to:
1. machine code
2. assembly code
3. byte code
4. virtual machine code

Title
What type of code is created by the Python compiler?
type
mc
 Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-20

24. What is the correct sequence of steps invoked by the Python Interpreter:
1. source code -> virtual machine -> byte code ->compiler
2. source code -> compiler -> byte code -> virtual machine
3. compiler -> source code -> virtual machine -> byte code
4. byte code -> virtual machine -> source code ->compiler

Title
What is the role of the Interpreter?
type
mc
Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-21

25. Which line in the following program is a comment line?

26. 1: print("Your lucky number is...")
27. 2: lucky = 7
28. 3: # Display the lucky number
29. 4: print(lucky)
1. Line number 1
2. Line number 2
3. Line number 3
4. Line number 4

Title
What is the syntax for a comment line?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-22
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-22

30. What is the purpose of a comment?

1. A comment provides information to the virtual machine
2. A comment provides information to the compiler
3. A comment provides information to the programmer
4. A comment provides information to the user running the program
 Title
What is the purpose of a comment?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-23
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-23

31. A collection of programming instructions that carry out a particular task is called a:
1. program
2. compiler
3. function
4. comment

Title
What is a collection of programming instructions called?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-24

32. To use or call a function, you need to specify:

1. the function name and its arguments
2. the function name only
3. the function name and at least one argument
4. the function name and a comment describing its use

Title
How do you call a function?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-25

33. A sequence of characters enclosed in quotes is called:

1. a string
2. a list
3. a function
4. an argument
 Title
What is a sequence of characters enclosed in quotes called?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-26

34. Which of the following is considered a string in Python?

1. Today is Wednesday
2. "Today is Wednesday"
3. # Today is Wednesday #
4. Today_is_Wednesday

Title
What is a string in Python?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-27

35. What is wrong with the following code snippet?

36. print("Hello")
print("World!")

1. The print function cannot be called twice

2. The print function is missing an argument
3. Nothing, the program prints Hello World on the same line
4. The second line should not be indented

Title
What is wrong with the code snippet?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-28

37. What is printed by the following code snippet?

print(25 + 84)

1. 2584
 2. 109
3. 25 + 84
4. Nothing, this code snipped causes a compile time error

Title
What is printed by a given code snippet?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-29

38. What is printed by the following code snippet?

print("The answer is", 25 + 84)

1. The answer is 2584

2. The answer is 109
3. The answer is 25 + 84
4. Nothing, this code snipped causes a compile time error

Title
What is printed by a given code snippet?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-30

39. What is printed by the following code snippet?

print("The answers are:", 4 + 3 * 2, 7 * 5 - 24)

1. The answers are: 10 11

2. The answers are: 14 11
3. The answers are: 24 10
4. Nothing, this code snipped causes a compile time error

Title
What is printed by a given code snippet?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
 id
testbank-py-1-ch01-31

40. What is printed by the following code snippet?

print("25 + 84")

1. 2584
2. 109
3. 25 + 84
4. Nothing, this code snipped causes a compile time error

Title
What is printed by a given code snippet?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-32

41. What is printed by the following code snippet?

print(Hello)

1. Nothing, an error is produced indicating that Hello is not defined

2. Hello
3. 'Hello'
4. "Hello"

Title
What is printed by a given code snippet?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-33

42. What is printed by the following code snippet?

print("Good", "Morning", "Class", "!")

1. GoodMorningClass!
2. Good Morning Class!
3. Good Morning Class !
4. nothing, this code produces a syntax error
 Title
What is printed by a given code snippet?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-34

43. What is another name for a compile-time error?

1. Logic error
2. Semantic error
3. Syntax error
4. Lexicographic error

Title
What is another name for a compile-time error?
type
mc
Section
1.6 Errors
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-35

44. Although the following code statement is valid, print(10/0), what will happen when
this code is executed?
1. The program prints 0
2. The error message ZeroDivisionError: int division or modulo by zero
is displayed
3. The program runs, but nothing is printed
4. The error message SyntaxError: EOL while scanning string literal

Title
What is another name for a compile-time error?
type
mc
Section
1.6 Errors
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-36

45. The programmer, not the compiler, is responsible for testing a program to identify what?
1. Undefined symbols
2. Syntax errors
3. Logic errors
4. Out-of-memory errors
 Title
The programmer, not the compiler, is responsible for testing a program to identify?
type
mc
Section
1.6 Errors
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-37

46. What is it called when you describe the steps that are necessary for finding a solution to a
problem in programming?
1. algorithm
2. compile
3. interpret
4. code

Title
What is it called when you describe the steps that are necessary for finding a solution to a
problem in programming?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-38

47. The following pseudocode calculates the total purchase price for an item including sales
tax, what is the missing last line?
48. Start by setting the total cost to zero.
49. Ask the user for the item cost.
50. Ask the user for the tax rate.
51. Set the item tax to item cost times tax rate.
_________________________________

1. Set the total cost to the item cost plus the tax rate.
2. Set the total cost to the item cost times the tax.
3. Set the total cost to the item cost plus the tax.
4. Set the total cost to the item tax.

Title
What is the missing pseudocode?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-39
52. What is the purpose of the following algorithm, written in pseudocode?
53. num = 0
54. Repeat the following steps 15 times
55. Ask user for next number
56. If userNum > num
57. num = userNum
58. Print num
1. To print out the 15 numbers
2. To find the smallest among 15 numbers
3. To search for a particular number among 15 numbers
4. To find the highest among 15 numbers

Title
What is the purpose of this algorithm?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-40

59. Which of the following is NOT an example of an algorithm?

1. A recipe to make chocolate chip cookies
2. A grocery list
3. Instructions for changing a flat tire
4. Steps required to calculate the amount of paint required to paint a room

Title
Which of the following is NOT an example of an algorithm?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-41

60. Which of the following pseudocode statements represents a decision?

1. For each number in a sequence...
2. While the balance is > 0
3. total cost = unit cost + tax
4. if total cost > 15

Title
Which of the following pseudocode statements represents a decision statement?
type
mc
Section
 1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-42

61. Which of the following pseudocode statements represents a repetition statement?

1. if total cost > 15
2. set i equal to 3
3. total cost = unit cost + tax
4. while the balance is > 0

Title
Which of the following pseudocode statements represents a repetition statement?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-43
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-43

62. Which of the following statements is NOT correct?

1. Pseudocode should be unambiguous.
2. Pseudocode should be executable.
3. Pseudocode should be properly formatted.
4. Pseudocode should be terminating.

Title
Which of the following is NOT important when writing pseudocode?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-44
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-44

63. Imagine that you are planning to buy a new cell phone. After doing some research, you
have determined that there are two different cell phones that will meet your needs. These
cell phones have different purchase prices and each mobile service provider charges a
different rate for each minute that the cell phone is used. In order to determine which cell
phone is the better buy, you need to develop an algorithm to calculate the total cost of
purchasing and using each cell phone. Which of the following options lists all the inputs
needed for this algorithm?
1. The cost of each cell phone and the rate per minute for each cell phone
 2. The cost of each cell phone and the number of minutes provided with each cell
phone
3. The cost of each cell phone, the rate per minute for each cell phone, and the
number of minutes provided with each cell phone
4. The cost of each cell phone, the rate per minute for each cell phone, and the
number of minutes you would use the cell phone

Title
Which inputs do you need to calculate cost of purchasing/using cell phone?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-45
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-45

64. In order to run Python programs, the computer needs to have software called a(n)?
1. debugger
2. interpreter
3. windows
4. assembler

Title
Software needed to run Python on a computer?
type
mc
Section
1.3 The Python Programming Language
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-46

65. A Python interpreter is:

1. a folder hierarchy
2. a piece of hardware
3. a piece of software
4. a type of secondary storage

Title
What is a Python virtual machine?
type
mc
Section
1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment
id
 testbank-py-2-ch01-47
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-47

66. Consider the following pseudocode. What does it produce?

67. Create a list of consecutive integers from two to n (2, 3, 4, ..., n).
68. Initially, let p equal 2.
69. Repeat the following steps until p is greater than n:
70. Remove all of the multiples of p less than or equal to n from the
list.
71. If the list contains a number greater than p
72. Find the first number remaining in the list greater than p.
73. Replace p with this number.
74. Otherwise set p equal to n + 1
1. All even numbers up to n
2. All factorial numbers up to n
3. All odd numbers up to n
4. All prime numbers up to n

Title
Software needed to run Python on a computer?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-48
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-48

75. Consider the following pseudocode. What does it produce?

76. Set a = 0
77. Set b = 0
78. Set c = 1
79. Set d = 1
80. Report the value of d
81. Repeat until a equals 10
82. Set d = b + c
83. Set b = c
84. Set c = d
85. Add 1 to a
86. Report the value of d
1. 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89
2. 1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
3. 1 1 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Title
What does this algorithm produce?
type
 mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-2-ch01-49
from
testbank-py-1-ch01-49

87. A sequence of steps that is unambiguous, executable, and terminating is called:

1. a logarithm
2. a programming task
3. an algorithm
4. pseudocode

Title
What is a list of steps that are unambiguous, executable, and terminating called?
type
mc
Section
1.7 Problem Solving: Algorithm Design
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-50

88. Which of the follow statements is most correct?

1. Computer programs are comprised of a large number of simple instructions.
2. Computer programs are comprised of a large number of sophisticated instructions.
3. Computer programs are comprised of a small number of simple instructions.
4. Computer programs are comprised of a small number of sophisticated
instructions.

Title
What are computer programs comprised of?
type
mc
Section
1.1 Computer Programs
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-51

89. Which of the following is not a benefit of the Python programming language compared
to other popular programming languages like Java, C and C++?
1. Python encourages experimentation and rapid turn around
2. Python has a cleaner syntax
3. Python is easier to use
4. Python programs run more quickly
 Title
What are the benefits of Python compared to other programming languages?
type
mc
Section
1.3 The Python Programming Language
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-52

90. Which of the following code segments will display Hello World! when it is run?
1. print(Hello "," World"!")
2. print("Hello", "World!")
3. print("Hello", "World", "!")
4. print("Hello", ",", "World", "!")

Title
Which code segment displays the desired result?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-53

91. When a function is called, the values placed in parentheses are referred to as:
1. arguments
2. keywords
3. operators
4. statements

Title
What are the parts of a function call?
type
mc
Section
1.5 Analyzing Your First Program
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-54

92. Which type of error is usually the most difficult to locate in your program?
1. Indentation Error
2. Logic Error
3. Syntax Error
4. Zero Division Error

Title
Which type of error is most difficult to locate?
type
mc
Section
1.6 Errors
id
testbank-py-1-ch01-55
Other documents randomly have
different content
elements it is not to be made or destroyed by us, nor can the plant
make carbon for itself.
If you examine the list of substances you put into the food solution
once more, you will find that carbon is not among them, nor is it
contained in any of them.
Carbon, then, is the extra substance which makes the weight of the
plant greater than that of the salts used from its food solution.
Where does the plant find this carbon?
You may know that there are three chief gases in the air: oxygen and
nitrogen, which are the important parts for our breathing, and a little
carbonic acid gas, which you may remember is breathed out by
animals and plants (see p. 6), and is made of carbon joined with
oxygen. As there was no carbon in the food solution, and the plant
was surrounded by air containing carbon and oxygen in the invisible
form of gas, the idea is suggested that perhaps it is from the air that
the plant gets its carbon. Now let us see if this is true by trying the
effect of removing the carbonic acid gas from the air in which the
plant is growing.
To do this we must set up an apparatus which will allow only air freed
from carbonic acid gas to surround the plant. Such an apparatus is
shown in the figure 12. The plant is grown in the closed bell jar D,
which stands over the dish C filled with lime-water, which prevents
carbonic acid gas entering through the cracks between the foot of the
jar and the table. All the air which enters the jar D must come first
through jar A, which is filled with a solution of caustic potash that has
the power of absorbing the carbonic acid gas, and then through jar B
with lime-water. You can draw plenty of air through jar D for the use
of the plant by sucking at the indiarubber tube G, which must be
carefully shut with a clamp when you stop the current. The bell-jar D
will now be filled with air which is quite free from carbonic acid gas,
and the small quantity which is breathed out by the plant itself will be
absorbed by the lime-water in dish C. Place the whole in a light or
sunny position, and change the air every day or two in the way you
filled it, that is by drawing at G so that the fresh air comes in through
A and B, and is free from carbonic acid gas.

Fig. 12. Apparatus used to keep a plant without any carbonic acid
gas. A, jar of caustic potash, B, jar of lime water, which absorb the
carbonic acid gas, through which all the air entering jar D must
pass; C, basin of lime water to absorb any of the gas given out by
the plant growing in D; G, indiarubber tube which can be closed or
attached to a siphon to draw air through D.

If you keep the plant growing under these conditions for some time
you will find, in comparison with another quite similar plant growing in
the open near it, that its growth is very slow. The leaves it forms are
smaller, and finally its growth almost ceases. Further, if you test the
leaves of the plant growing out in the air for starch (see pp. 24 and
25), you will find that they contain plenty, but that the leaves on the
plant in the bell-jar are empty of starch. Now all healthily growing
green leaves contain starch, so that this is a good proof that
something is seriously wrong with the plant, which has been deprived
of the supply of carbon in the air. This shows us that plants use the
carbonic acid gas in the air for their growth.
Carbonic acid gas is composed of a union of carbon and oxygen gas.
If, then, the carbon is used by the plant, what happens to the oxygen?
You must have noticed bubbles rising
from the “pond scum” and water-
plants when they are in the sunlight,
the little bubbles sometimes coming
up in a quick, regular succession
from the leaves and stems. Let us
collect this gas and test it to find out
what it is. This is more easily done if
the plants are living in glass jars,
where you can see them and get at
them readily. A very good plant to
use is the common Canadian water-
plant (Elodea), which you can buy in
aquarium shops if you cannot get it
from the ponds for yourself. Place a
handful of this plant in a tall, glass
jar filled with fresh water, and cover
it with a glass funnel, so as to collect
the bubbles as they rise. See that
the funnel is well under the water
and support over it a test tube full of
water, as in fig. 13. Place the jar in
as bright sunlight as possible, when
you should see the bubbles
beginning to come off quite quickly.
As the bubbles rise in the tube A, the Fig. 13. Jar of Elodea in water, giving
water is forced out till the whole off bubbles of oxygen gas in the
vessel is filled with gas. Then place sunlight.
your thumb over the mouth of the
tube of gas, and remove it quickly from the water. Test it by plunging
into it a splinter of wood which has been burning, but just blown out,
so that it is still glowing. If you plunge it quickly enough into the tube,
it should catch fire and burn brilliantly. Now this is the test for oxygen
gas, so that we have proved that the tube was full of oxygen. This
oxygen is the part of the carbonic acid gas which is given off by the
plant as it uses the carbon and frees the oxygen it does not need.
You will find that the gas bubbles are given off much more rapidly
when the plant is placed in bright sunshine than when it is shaded,
and that when the plant is in darkness the bubbles stop altogether.
This seems to show us that the sunshine must assist the plant to split
up the carbonic acid gas, and we will find out more about this later on
(see p. 25).
We have now found that carbon forms a large part of the plant body,
that plants cannot grow in air in which there is no carbonic acid gas,
and that in getting the carbon from the carbonic acid gas, they split it
up and give off the oxygen. So that we see that plants use the
carbon in the air as well as the salts dissolved in the water of
the soil as raw materials, with which they finally build up
their food. We must now try to find what food substance it is that
they build up from these raw materials.
 CHAPTER VI.
THE FOOD MANUFACTURED BY THE PLANT
You will remember that much of the food provided in the nurse
leaves consisted of starch, and that the baby plants use this food as
they grow.
In the full grown plant we also find much starch; in fact, nearly all
the parts of plants which we eat as food contain large quantities of
starch, as you can test with iodine in potatoes, turnips, radishes,
oatmeal, flour, and a host of our other vegetable foods. This is also
the case in many parts of plants which we do not generally use as
food, for example, in the lily and tulip bulbs, underground stems of
Solomon’s Seal, and the stems and leaves of most plants. So that we
find that the food grains of starch are developed in grown plants,
and are not only provided for the young ones.
What is starch made of? Try heating a piece of laundry starch on
an iron plate or the bars of the grate, and you will see that it
blackens, and finally, if you put a light to it, may burn. If you simply
heat it without quite burning it, you will find that it chars and goes
black like a piece of charcoal. The solid element of starch is carbon.
Now you may remember that in the plant growing under the bell-jar
from which we shut out all the carbonic acid gas, we found that the
leaves did not show any starch (see p. 20). The plant had not been
able to build up starch without the carbon obtained from the air.
The leaves of a plant are spread out in the sunshine and air, and it is
in the leaves that we get the starch first formed. The leaves, in fact,
are the food factories of the plant. You should study the appearance
of starch in the leaves. As their green colour hides the iodine
colouration, it is better first to remove it from any leaves you are
studying in the following manner. So soon after picking them as
possible, throw them on to some very hot or boiling water for a
moment. This kills them quickly and makes them soft; then put them
in a jar or tube of alcohol,[4] and leave them in it overnight. By next
day the green colour should be gone, having been absorbed out of
the tissues by the alcohol, and the leaves left yellowish or white.
Then put them to soak in water till the stiffness caused by the
alcohol has gone, when you should add the iodine. If you examine
ordinary leaves in this way you will find that they go violet or
brownish blue, showing that they contain starch.
Now do leaves always contain starch? You will remember that the
oxygen bubbles were given off much more quickly from the plants in
the sunlight than from those in the dark (see p. 21). This shows that
the leaves in the sunlight split up the carbonic acid gas more quickly
than the others, which would give them more carbon to work on,
and therefore it seems that they should be able to build up more
starch in the light than in dull weather or darkness. You can see if
this is true by doing a simple experiment.

Fig. 14. Leaf partly covered with cork sheets, A, and place in sunny
position (compare Fig. 15).

If you take a leaf growing in the sunlight, and cover a portion of it,
leaving the rest exposed, you will be able to see the effect of light
and darkness on the starch-building powers of this particular leaf. To
do this use two flat pieces of cork or thick cardboard, covered with
silver paper or tin foil about 1 in. to 1½ in. big, and of the same size
and shape. Place a part of a healthy leaf between them and bind
them tightly together, as in fig. 14. If the weight of the cork makes
the leaf bend down out of the full sunlight, then support it so that it
lies in a position where it is well lighted. Leave it untouched for three
days, and then in the middle of a bright day cut the leaf from the
tree, remove the cork when you get into the house, and immediately
treat it as described above for the iodine test. You will find that the
part of the leaf which was exposed shows a good violet colour,
proving that starch is present there, while the part which was
covered is only yellowish, showing that starch has not been
developed in this portion (see fig. 15). This proves that the covered
part of the leaf could not build starch, so that exposure to the light
and air seems to be necessary, as we expected. This further
suggests that it is only in the daytime that the plant can build starch.
You can see that this is actually the case by testing leaves from the
same tree at different times of the day and comparing the starch in
them. For example, test a leaf from a certain plant in the early
afternoon, when it has been exposed all day to good sunlight, and
compare it with one which is gathered just before sunrise, if you can
get up so soon (this is, of course, easier in the spring or autumn,
when the sun does not rise so early as in midsummer). You will find
that the leaves picked in the early afternoon are packed with starch,
while those picked before the day begins show very little or none.
 Fig. 15. Same leaf as in Fig. 14 treated with iodine. It shows that
the covered part had formed no starch.
What then becomes of the starch during the night?
You will remember that we found much starch in potatoes, which
you know grow right underground, and therefore, according to the
experiments we have just done, should not contain starch. But it is
found that the starch is made in the leaves through the day, and is
slowly carried down the stems in solution, and then stored (not
made) in the underground parts, such as bulbs, potatoes, thick
roots, and many others. It is like the shopkeeper, who collects some
money each day and sends it every evening to the bank to be stored
for him.
The leaves of the plant are then fresh next day to begin the work of
building up more starch.
 Fig. 16. Striped leaves; the white stripes show no starch when
stained with iodine.

One of the great contrasts between the leaves in the air, and the
parts of the plant underground, is that the leaves are bright green in
colour, and the underground parts are yellowish or brown. It has
been found that the green colour in leaves is very important in the
building up of the starch. You can see this in the case of leaves
which have parts quite colourless, as in those which are variegated
or striped. Take the leaves of such a plant, which have been exposed
to a good light, and test them in the usual way for starch. You will
find that the pale stripes of the leaf show no colour with iodine,
because they are empty of starch, owing to the fact that the green
colour was not there to build it up. The value of the green colour is
that it absorbs the energy of the sunlight, and uses it to get the
carbon from the carbonic acid gas, and then to build the carbon into
starch.
Now you will remember in doing the experiments on the food
solutions (see p. 17), that one of the plants lost its green colour,
turned yellowish, and finally died. That was the plant which had no
iron in its food solution. We have found, therefore, that without iron
a plant cannot build up its green colour, and without its green colour
it cannot use the store of carbon in the air to build up its food. This
is only one example of the importance of mineral salts to the plant.
Salts containing nitrogen are equally vital, while a number of mineral
compounds are necessary for healthy growth. So that we see that
the minerals absorbed in solution by the roots, as well as the
carbonic acid gas absorbed from the air by the leaves, and the
energy of light absorbed by the green colour are all equally
necessary to the life of the plant, as all help in the building up of its
food.
We have now seen that plants require food just as much as animals
do; but that they use different and simpler elements from which
they build it up for themselves, unlike the animals, which require
their starchy foods to be ready built up for them. The foods which
plants make they use in growing, and the other activities of their
lives, just as animals do.
 CHAPTER VII.
THE CIRCULATION OF WATER
As we have already found out, water is one of the things which are
necessary for the well-being of plants. Seedlings can begin to sprout
only when they are well supplied with it, and in the growing plant it
is the water in the cells which keeps it firm and fresh. Directly the
plant is deprived of some of its water it becomes limp and flabby,
and “withers.” We noticed in Chapter IV. that the rootlets absorb the
water (with its salts contained in solution) from the soil, and from
them it travels all over the plant. The salts dissolved in water,
however, are in very weak solution, and to provide the plant with
sufficient of them for its growth it is necessary that a continuous
stream of water should enter the plant. How is this stream kept up?
 Fig. 17. Experiment to show that leaves give off water. Notice the
drops collecting in the tube, which is closed with cotton-wool.

The leaves play a very important part in the water circulation, their
thin expanded surfaces giving a large area from which the
evaporation of water can take place. The water which comes off
from them is not generally visible to us, because it comes off as
vapour. However, you can easily make experiments which will show
you that it actually does come off from the leaves.
Take a large test tube or a small glass flask, and place it over a
good-sized fresh green leaf, which you leave attached to a healthy
plant or a branch in water. Round the leaf-stalk wrap cotton wool till
it fits like a cork in the neck of the flask, so that it shuts the leaf into
the vessel, leaving no communication with the outer air, and at the
same time does not injure it in any way (see fig. 17). Very soon,
even after an hour or two, you will find a misty appearance inside
the glass, and this will settle gradually in the form of drops of water
which collect together and run down the sides of the flask. You do
not see all this water coming off from the leaf under ordinary
conditions because it goes into the air as invisible vapour, but when
it is given off continually into a closed space the air soon gets
saturated with all it can hold, and the rest must form liquid drops
which we can see. If you keep a record of the time of your
experiment, and also measure the amount of water collected in the
flask, and then measure the size of the leaf, it only needs a little
simple arithmetic to give you a rough idea of the quantities of water
which must be given off every day by a single leaf. From that you
can imagine the amount passing away from a whole plant or a great
tree; and I think you will be surprised to find how much it is.
Another simple experiment shows us that the leaves play an
important part in giving off water. Take three flasks with long, thin
necks, and of as nearly equal sizes as possible. In one place a
branch to which a number of fresh, green leaves are attached, in
another a branch of the same size with only small buds (cut off the
leaves if necessary), and leave the third as a check to show how
much water has simply evaporated away. Fill all the flasks up to the
same level with water, and mark this in all three when you start.
Leave them for a day or two and then mark the level of the water,
some of which will now have evaporated (see fig. 18). This will show
clearly that more water has gone from the one with the branch than
from the empty flask, and that a great deal more water has gone
from the one in which was the branch with big leaves attached.
 Fig. 18. Experiment to show that leaves give off water. The flasks
were all filled to the same level I., and left for the same time. The
one with the leaves in it lose far more than the others.

You can see roughly the rate at which the water goes off from the
leaves by completely filling with water an apparatus like that in fig.
19. As the leafy branch (which is firmly fastened in the cork with no
air leakage) uses up the water, it must be drawn along the narrow
tube, which is graduated so as to show the quantity lost.
 Fig. 19. Experiment to measure the amount of water given off by
leaves in a given time. At first the tube is full of water, which is
drawn back to points 1, 2, etc., as the leaves use it.

From these experiments we find that even although we do not

actually see it coming off, yet the leaves of the plant give off a great
deal of water in the form of vapour. By this process large quantities
of water are drawn through the plant, and the salts in weak solution
in it are kept and used by the plant as they are needed for building
up its structure.
Now you may think that the loss is simply the result of evaporation
from the leaves, because the surface of the leaves is great, and they
would therefore naturally lose a considerable amount of water by
evaporation. But this view is only partly correct, because the giving
off of water by leaves or “transpiration,” as it is called, is regulated
by a number of little pores in the skin of the leaf, which can open
and close. You can see the importance of these pores as water
regulators in plants which have them only on one side of the leaf,
because practically all the water escapes from the side on which
they are situated.
 Fig. 20. Leaf A greased on the lower side, leaf B on the upper side,
and C not at all. B withers as fast as C.

To see this, take three leaves of the indiarubber tree, which is grown
so often in rooms. Choose three which are as nearly as possible just
alike in size and shape. Of one of them carefully cover the whole of
the lower side, and the cut-end of the stalk, with vaseline or coco
butter; do the same to the upper side and the cut-stalk of the
second leaf, and leave the third untouched. Fasten all three
separately on to a string so that they all hang with both sides
exposed to the air, and leave them for some days. The leaf which
was not greased will shrivel up; as it gives up its water and can get
no more, it “withers” and dies completely. The leaf which was
greased on upper side also withers at about the same rate as the
ungreased one, but the one which was greased on the lower side
remains fresh and green (see fig. 20). This is because all the pores
are on the lower sides of these leaves, and in the one greased on
the lower side the vaseline had completely closed them, and so
prevented the water from passing away through them. The upper
surface is well protected against ordinary evaporation by a thick skin
which does not allow the water to pass through it. The leaf greased
on the upper side had all its pores left open, and so in this way was
withered as quickly as one not greased at all. Not all leaves have
their pores only on one side, but in nearly all plants the pores can
open and shut. These facts show that transpiration is more than
mere evaporation; it is a “life process,” that is, a physical process
which is regulated by the structure of the living plant.
Transpiration is very important for plants, for it helps to keep the
continual stream of water going through them, which brings with it
the necessary food salts. Some plants cannot afford to let much
water pass away, for they find it very hard indeed to get enough to
keep them fresh; such plants as live in deserts or on bare, sandy
places, for example, protect themselves from much transpiration by
various devices and special arrangements, which we will study in
Chapter XVIII.
We have already observed the fact that water enters the plant at its
roots, and have just seen that it passes off as water-vapour from its
leaves. Let us now consider for a moment the manner of its
entrance. How can water enter the roots of plants?
Let us first look at a somewhat similar case in non-living things
which will, perhaps, help us to understand the process in living
plants.
Take a small “thistle-funnel” and tie tightly over the wide opening a
piece of bladder; then pour some very strong solution of sugar into
the funnel and place it in a glass of pure water. Mark the level of the
sugar with a label (see fig. 21, S). Leave this for a short time, and
you will find that the water has entered the funnel tube and run up it
for quite a long way.
 Fig. 21. “Thistle funnel” covered
with bladder B, filled with sugar
solution up to level S, and placed
in a jar of water. After a time the
water is seen to have risen to W.

You should take another similar tube and do everything in the same
way, except that you leave out the sugar solution. Then you will find
that the water remains inside the funnel at just the same level as in
the outer jar. This is the usual behaviour of water, and in the first
case, where the water rose inside the funnel, the rise was due to the
influence of the sugar, which has the power of drawing in water.
Now we can compare the skin of the root hairs (see fig. 9) to the
bladder membrane covering the funnel, and it has been found that
inside the cells are substances which have the same power of
attracting water as we found was possessed by the sugar. So that
the entrance of water into the roots depends chiefly on the
attraction of the substances within its cells.
That a large amount of water enters the root in this way you can see
if you cut off a quickly growing plant (a vine is very good if you can
get it) just near its base, and attach to the cut-end a long glass tube
in place of the shoot you have cut away. You must fasten this tube
by a very well-fitting indiarubber tube, which you bind tightly so that
it will allow no leakage, and support the glass. Pour a few drops of
water down the tube to keep the cut-end of the plant from drying up
at the beginning of the experiment. Then mark the level reached by
the water, and do this every day as it rises in the tube. You should
find that for some time it steadily rises day by day (see fig. 22).
 Fig. 22. Plant P, which has been cut off
near the root, is attached by the
indiarubber tube I to a tall glass pipe,
which is supported by stand S. On the
glass are marked the levels reached by
the water rising from the root.

We see in this way that the roots take in a large and continual
supply of water, and this must get pressed up the stem even without
the influence of the transpiring leaves. This is called the “root
pressure,” and is a very important factor in supplying the plant with
water. In a plant which is growing under usual conditions, both the
transpiration of the leaves and the root pressure are at work, and
are both necessary to keep a good stream of water passing through
the plant. This stream of water provides it with its mineral food
materials, and also keeps it stiff and fresh, and is, as we have seen,
absolutely necessary for the growth of the plant.
 CHAPTER VIII.
LIGHT AND ITS INFLUENCES
When we were experimenting on the building of starchy food in leaves
(Chapter VI.) we saw how very important and even essential light is
for the activity of the plant, and it is therefore natural to expect that
light should influence its growth very considerably.
You may see the effect of light which comes only from one side on
plants grown in the windows of rooms. If they are left in one position
they grow in a one-sided manner with only the bare stalks toward the
darker side of the room and all their leaves turned towards the
window through which the light comes. If you want them to look
pretty towards the room side also, they must be turned round
frequently, so that the leaves are drawn in many directions instead of
one only. The usual effect of light is to make the leaves grow towards
it. You may see this still more clearly by placing a pot of seedlings in a
blackened box with a small hole on one side. Very soon they will bend
over towards the light entering by it (see fig. 23).
 Fig. 23. Grass seedlings growing in an earthenware dish enclosed in
a strong box blacked inside so that the light only enters at a. (Note
how the seedlings bend towards it.)
Leaves can absorb most light when their upper surfaces are at right
angles to it, and you will find some leaf-stems will bend right round in
order to allow their leaves to get into this position. For example, if you
take a pot of nasturtiums growing in the usual way, and support the
pot on a stand, and cover it over with a bell jar which has been
blackened, or with a black box, so that all the light reaches the plant
from below, you will find that in a day or two the leaves will have
turned completely round on their stalks and are now facing the light,
so that they are upside down in their relation to the position of the
whole plant (see fig. 24).
Fig. 24. Nasturtium covered over, so
that the light only enters from
below. The leaf surfaces bend over
to face it.
 Fig. 25. Spray of Maple showing stalks of leaves of the same
pair of very different lengths, so as to place the leaves well as
regards light.

In a small plant, or one with only a few big leaves, this desire for the
light is easily arranged for, as there is room for each of them. But if all
the leaves of a great tree were turned in the same direction, you will
see that many of the under ones must be shaded by the others. This
is not so bad as one might expect, however, owing to the wonderful
way in which the leaves arrange themselves so as to use every bit of
space they can, and yet to overlap and screen each other as little as
possible. Particularly in plants which grow flat on the ground or
against walls, and which therefore get all their light from one side, this
is very well shown. In plants with the leaves in opposite pairs you will
often find one leaf of the pair big, and the other one small, or that the
leaf-stalks are of different lengths, and if you examine this pair in
relation to the rest of the branch, you will see how it is developed in
this way so as to use every bit of space it can and get as much light as
possible without overlapping its neighbours (see fig. 25). Although it is
true in one way that each leaf works as a separate individual, yet each
separate leaf is only a small part of the plant, and they all work
together for the good of the whole. Branches which have their leaves
arranged in this way so that they seem to fit into a pattern, form what
is called “Leaf Mosaic.” You may see this kind of arrangement among
the leaves of very many plants (see figs. 25 and 26).
If, as we have already seen, light is so very important for the plant,
what is the result of growing it in the dark? As you know, it will not be
able to build itself food, and so would finally starve and die. If,
however, we choose a plant which has already much food stored up
and can therefore grow for a time without making a new supply, then
we can study the effect of darkness on its growth.
Take some beans which are just beginning to sprout, plant them in a
pot, and place the pot in some quite dark place such as a cellar or a
dark room, or cover them with a well-made blackened box which shuts
out all the light. Also take a potato which is just beginning to sprout at
its “eyes,” and keep it in the dark. Both these plants have food in
reserve; the beans have much in their nurse-leaves, and the potato is
packed with starch, as you saw before. At the same time grow a potful
of beans and a potato plant in the light, so that you can compare the
growth of the plants under the two different conditions of light and
darkness.
You will find that those grown in the dark are very straggling and of a
sickly yellowish colour, and are a great contrast to the shorter sturdier
young green plants grown in the open air. The stems of those grown
in the dark are long and limp, and not able to support themselves
upright, while the distance between the leaves is very great, and the
leaves themselves are small and useless (see fig. 27).
Fig. 26. Leaves of Ivy growing out
from the stem so as not to overlap
each other.
 Fig. 27. Seedlings of Bean of the same age, A grown
in the light, B in the dark.

Why should these plants have such a great length of stem? It shows
us, that when the plant is already supplied with food, darkness does
not prevent mere growth in length. In fact it grows faster in length in
the dark, which is an effort on the part of the plant to grow away from
the darkness into the light. It economises in material and does not
form stiff, thick stems and big leaves which would be useless until it
reaches the light.
If you now make a small chink in the black box with which you cover
the plants, you will find that they grow towards it and through it into
the light. Once the tip of the stem is outside in the light, it will form
the usual leaves at the proper intervals from one another.
The power of rapid growth in length of a plant growing in darkness,
which economises the material generally used for strengthening the
plant, and its power of growing towards the light, combine to be of
practical use to a bulb or seed which is planted too deep in the earth.
You will find that the part underground has much the same character
as a plant grown in artificial darkness, until it reaches the surface.
These weak underground stems bring the growing part into the light,
and the plant does not waste material in forming large leaves and
strong stems underground where they would be useless.
Although light is so important, it does not follow that the stronger the
light, the better it is for the plant; just as it does not follow that
because we like to be warm, we like to be as hot as possible. It has
been found that plants bend away from the light when it is too strong
for them, as you may see in some plants near one of those very
brilliant electric lamps. The sun even is sometimes too brilliant (English
plants, however, do not suffer from that very much), and many plants
living in the tropics and regions of strong sunlight, protect themselves
from its direct rays by a number of different devices.
 CHAPTER IX.
GROWTH IN SEEDLINGS
When once the young plants start growing under suitable conditions
they steadily get bigger. At first sight they appear to grow equally all
over, stretching out in each direction as indiarubber does when it is
pulled. Let us try to find out whether this is actually the case.
 Fig. 28. A Bean seedling: A, with divisions marked on root
and stem; B, after further growth, showing where most of
the stretching has taken place.

Take a well-grown straight seedling and measure off along its stem
and along its root, beginning from the tip, distances 1 or 2 mm.
apart, marking them with a fine brush and waterproof ink. Take care
not to injure the plant, and also not to make the mark blurred or too
big. Draw the plant showing the marks on it as accurately as you
can, and make the drawing exactly life-size. Grow it in damp, but